Key words:  criminal law, bibliography on the defence of necessity, compulsion of circumstances, defence of necessity, necessity, Regina v. Dudley and Stephens, R. v. Perka, notstand, excuse, justification.   Mots clés: nécessité, état de nécessité, l'état de nécessité comme moyen de défense, l'état de nécessité comme justification, l'état de nécessité comme excuse.

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par / by ©François Lareau, 1998-, Ottawa, Canada

Selected Bibliography on the
Defence of Necessity in Criminal Law /

Bibliographie choisie sur l'état de
nécessité en droit pénal
------
See also / Voir aussi: Canadian Law / Droit canadien
------

"L'état de nécessité. -- Il résulte d'un conflit de devoirs entre lesquels l'individu doit choisir.  Les canonistes dont l'influence fut capitale en ce domaine le nommaient perplexitas.  L'Antiquité donnait l'exemple des deux naufragés dont l'un, accroché à une planche, repoussait le second, qui se noyait."  (André Laingui, Histoire du droit pénal, 2e édition, infra, p. 102)


II -- Comparative Law

A- Books / Livres etc.
 

ABAYIGIRA, Marie Goretti, L'état de nécessité en droit pénal rwandais, Kigali: Université nationale du Rwanda, 1986, iii, 59 p.; sous la dir. de  Robert Kint; titre noté dans mes recherche mais document non consulté;


ABOAF, Joseph H., L'état de nécessité et la responsabilité délictuelle, Paris : Librairie générale de droit et de jurisprudence, 1942, xii, 298 p.; note de recherche sur le droit civil français mais d'intérêt pour le sujet; copie à la bibliothèque de la Cour suprême du Canada, Ottawa;  M. Aboaf est docteur en droit;
 

ACCAD, Lucien, "Définition des comportements délictueux", dans Encyclopédie juridique de l'Afrique, Tome X, Droit pénal et procédure pénale, sous la     direction de Gilbert Mangin, Abidjan/Dakar/Lomé : Les nouvelles éditions africaines, 1982, 352, [66] p., chapitre 1, pp. 19-51; voir sur «L'état de nécessité», les pp. 38-39, ISBN: 2723608352;
 

AL-MUTAIRI, Mansour Z., Necessity in Islamic law, Thesis (Ph.D.), University of Edinburgh, 1997; thesis not consulted yet;

    "This study aims at exploring the widely applied principle of necessity (darürah) in Islamic law.  Its main focus is to examine the legal definition and limitations of necessity.

      It has ben divided into five chapters, an introduction and a conclusion.  In the first chapter, special attention has been given to several aspects of this subject such as the definition of necessity in Islamic classical and modern jurisprudence.  Moreover, since the maxims of necessity are an essential element of this topic, they have been explored in the second chapter.  The causes of the state of necessity were dealt with.  In this regard, compulsion, legitimate defence, illness, change in circumstances have been discussed insofar as they related to necessity.  To give an accurate idea of the limitation of this principle, the conditions of necessity were the main concern of the fourth chapter.  In the fifth chapter, the discussion was concerned with the relation between necessity and other Islamic legal terms particularly those terms which are regarded as sources of law.  The link betwen public interest (maslahah mursalah), blocking the means (sadd aldhara i'), istihsan and concession (rukhsah) and necessity on the other hand was found to be strong.  The conclusions, finally, summarizes the discussion previously made and presents the findings of this study." (source: Index to These with abstracts accepted for higher degrees bu the Universities of Great Britain and Ireland, vol. 47 (1999), Part 5, January 1999, 10450-12952, number 47-10992; copy at Ottawa University, MRT, Reference, Z 5055 .G69 A84)


AL SAADI, L'état de nécessité, cause d'irresponsabilité pénale.  Étude comparée, thèse Paris, 1962; texte non consulté mais cité par la doctrine, par ex. Marie-Élisabeth Cartier, infra, p. 28, note 3 et Stefani et al., infra, p. 352;
 

THE AMERICAN LAW INSTITUTE, Model Penal Code and Commentaries (Official Draft and Revised Comments), Part I - General Provisions §§3.01 to 5.07, Philadelphia: The American Law Institute, 1985, xl, 506 p., see § 3.02, "Justification Generally: Choice of Evils", pp. 8-22;
 

________________Model Penal Code: Proposed Official Draft, Philadelphia: The American Law Institute, 1962, xxii, 346 p., see Section 3.02, "Justification Generally: Choice of Evils",  pp. 45-46;
 

__________Model Penal Code: Tentative Draft No. 8, Philadelphia: The American Law Institute, 1958, [v], 139 p., see on choice of evils, pp. 1 and 5-10;
 

ANCEL, Marc, A.A. Piontkovsky, et V.M. Tchkhikvadze,  Le système pénal soviétique, Paris: Librairie générale de droit et de jurisprudence., 1975, vii, 150 p., sur l'état de nécessité, voir les pp. 47-48 (Collection; Les grands systèmes de droit pénal contemporains), ISBN: 2275013334.
 

ANDENAES, Johannes, The General Part of the Criminal Law of Norway, South Hackensack (N.J.): Fred B. Rothman and in London: Sweet & Maxwell, 1965, xxiii, 346 p., see "§ 16. Necessity and Negotiorum Gestio", pp. 165-173 (series; Publication of the Comparative Criminal Law Project);
 

AQUINAS, St. Thomas, 1225-1274, The "Summa Theologica" of St. Thomas Aquinas, Part II (Second Part) Litterally Translated by Fathers of the English Dominican Province, Second Number (QQ. XLVII. - LXXIX.), vol. 10, London: Burns Oates & Washbourne, 1929, 350 p., see Question 7, "Seventh Article.  Whether It Is Lawful to Steal Through Stress of Need?", at pp. 232-233;  note de recherche : pour le texte français, voir D'Aquin, infra;

 

ARISTOTE, Éthique de Nicomaque, traduction, préface et notes par J. Voilquin, Paris: Garnier Flammarion, 1965, 310, [3] p.; voir le Livre III, Chapitre 1;

"1. Puisque la vertu a rapport aux passions et aux actions, qu'on loue et blâme ce qui émane de notre volonté, tandis qu'on ne refuse pas son pardon et parfois même sa pitié à ce qui est accompli sans volonté de choix, peut-être est-il nécessaire de déterminer, puisque notre examen porte sur la vertu, ce qui est volontaire et ce qui est involontaire.

2. Du reste, cette étude ne manquera pas d'être utile aussi aux législateurs chargés de fixer les récompenses et les peines.

3. A ce qu'il semble, sont involontaires les actes accomplis par contrainte ou s'accompagnant d'ignorance. Un acte forcé est celui dont le principe est extérieur à nous-mêmes et tel que l'agent ou le patient n'y participe en rien, par exemple quand un vent violent ou des gens, maîtres de notre vie, nous transportent en quelque endroit.

4. Pour toutes les actions que nous exécutons par crainte de maux plus grands ou en vue d'une belle fin, on peut discuter la question de savoir si elles sont volontaires ou non; prenons par exemple le cas d'un tyran, qui, maître de la vie de nos parents et de nos enfants, nous enjoindrait de faire un acte honteux, en y mettant la condition que l'exécution sauverait les nôtres, tandis que le refus entraînerait leur mort.

5. Ce cas n'est pas sans analogie avec celui d'une cargaison jetée à la mer au cours d'une tempête; en général, personne ne perd de son plein gré sa cargaison; on s'y résigne pour sauver sa propre vie et celle des autres, comme le font tous ceux qui sont sains d'esprit.

6. Ainsi donc de telles actions ne revêtent pas un caractère bien net; néanmoins elles ressemblent davantage à des décisions volontaires. Car, au moment où on les exécute, elles sont délibérément voulues. D'autre part, la fin de l'acte est déterminée par les circonstances. Ainsi il faut préciser le degré de volonté dans l'acte qui s'accomplit. En de telles circonstances, c'est volontairement que l'homme agit; la cause qui fait mouvoir ses organes réside en lui; or avoir en soi-même le principe de ses actes, c'est avoir aussi en soi la possibilité de les exécuter ou non. De telles actions sont donc volontaires; mais, absolument parlant, peut-être dira-t-on aussi qu'elles sont involontaires : car nul ne souhaiterait exécuter des actes de cette nature pour eux-mêmes.

7. Parfois même, on loue une conduite de cette sorte, quand c'est en vue de grands et beaux résultats qu'on supporte ce qui est honteux et affligeant.  Dans le cas contraire, on n'obtient que le blâme. Car supporter la honte totale pour un acte sans beauté ou pour un faible profit est le fait d'un coeur méprisable. Parfois, ce qu'on obtient, ce n'est pas l'éloge, mais le pardon; c'est le cas lorsqu'il s'agit de faits qu'on réprouve, mais qui dépassent les forces de la nature humaine et que personne ne pourrait endurer.

8. Parfois, peut-être, est-il des cas où il ne faut pas céder à la force, où il vaut mieux mourir en endurant d'horribles supplices. En effet, les motifs qui poussent le personnage d'Alcméon, chez Euripide, à tuer sa mère sont, de l'aveu de tous, ridicules.

9. Il est donc parfois difficile de déterminer quelle conduite tenir de préférence à une autre, quels maux supporter plutôt que tels autres, et il est encore plus difficile de s'en tenir à sa décision. C'est qu'en général ce à quoi on s'attend est pénible et ce à quoi on est contraint, déshonorant. De là les blâmes et les éloges, selon que l'on a été contraint ou non à agir.

10. À quoi donc reconnaître le cas de force majeure ? Est-ce tout simplement le cas d'une cause extérieure à nous et lorsque l'exécutant n'a aucune intention de prendre part à l'action ? Certains actes sont par eux-mêmes involontaires; mais, dans telle circonstance, on les préfère à d'autres, et alors la cause réside dans l'exécutant. Par eux-mêmes ils restent involontaires; mais ils deviennent volontaires par ce choix momentané. Aussi ressemblent-ils plutôt aux actes volontaires; car les actions ont rapport avec les circonstances particulières et ces dernières comportent une intervention de la volonté. Mais sur le choix à faire de préférence à un autre, il n'est pas facile de s'expliquer, car les cas particuliers présentent beaucoup de différences.

11. Et si l'on venait à dire que ce qui est agréable et beau comporte la contrainte — car, l'agréable et le beau étant extérieurs à nous, nous nous verrions alors contraints —, tout, dans ces conditions, impliquerait une pareille contrainte. Car c'est en vue de ces fins que tous les hommes accomplissent tous leurs actes. Et, à la vérité, une partie d'entre eux, contraints et forcés, n'agissent qu'à contre-coeur, dans le cas de la peine, tandis que d'autres, se proposant l'agréable et le bien, éprouvent du plaisir. Il serait donc ridicule d'incriminer ce qui nous est extérieur et non notre propre personne, facilement séduite par ces avantages du dehors, et de s'attribuer le mérite des belles actions, en reportant sur l'attrait du plaisir la responsabilité de nos actes honteux.

12. Il semble bien qu'on appelle acte forcé celui dont le principe est hors de nous et auquel l'agent ne participe en rien." (pp. 65-67)

ASHWORTH, Andrew,  Principles of Criminal Law, 2nd ed., Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1995, xxviii, 496 p., see "Justifications, Necessity, and the Choice of Evils" at pp. 144-148 and "Duress and Necessity" at pp. 217-225, ISBN: 0198763670 and 0198763689 (pbk.); Research Note: there is a 3rd ed., 1999, ISBN: 0198765584;
 

ASSOCIATION INTERNATIONALE DE DROIT PÉNAL  (AIDP) (International Association of Penal Law) and Istituto Superiore Internazionale di Scienze Criminali (ISISC) (International Institute of Higher Studies in Criminal Sciences) and Max Planck Institute for Foreign and International Criminal Law (MPI), Draft Statute for an International Criminal Court -- Alternative to the ILC-Draft -- (Siracusa-Draft), prepared by a Committee of Experts Siracusa/Freiburg, July 1995, 88 p.; available at  http://www.iuscrim.mpg.de/forsch/straf/referate/sach/hispint/siracusa.pdf (accessed on 10 December 2005);

"Art. 33 l
Necessity/Coercion or Duress

1. Necessity excludes punishment when the person, by reason of circumstances beyond his control likely to create an otherwise unavoidable private or public harm, engages in conduct to avoid the imminent greater harm likely to be produced by such circumstances, but not likely to produce death.

2. Necessity can also result from coercion or duress which a person would reasonably be unable to resist.

3. Military necessity may exclude punishment only as provided by the international law of armed conflict." (p. 52)
 

AUSTRALIA, Criminal Law and Penal Methods Reform Committee of South Australia, The Substantive Criminal Law, 1977, xlviii, 460 p., see pp. 37-41 on necessity (Chairman: The Honourable Justice Roma Flinders Mitchell);
 

___________Criminal Law Officers Committee of the Standing Committee of Attorneys-General, Model Criminal Code, Chapter 2 General Principles of Criminal Responsibility - Discussion Draft, Canberra: Commonwealth Government Printer, July 1992, x, 107 p., see pp. 60-61 (Chairman: David Neal), ISBN: 064425372X;
 

___________Criminal Law Officers Committee of the Standing Committee of Attorneys-General,  Model Criminal Code, Chapter 2 General Principles of Criminal Responsibility - Final Report December 1992, Canberra: Australian Government Publishing Service, Commonwealth of Australia, 1993, x, 119, [ii] p., see pp. 66-67 (Chairman: David Neal), ISBN: 0644287438;
 

___________Law Reform Commissioner Victoria, Duress,  Necessity and Coercion, Melbourne : The Commissioner, 1980,  48 p., (series;  Law Reform Commissioner Report No. 9),  ISBN: 0724133526;
 

___________Law Reform Commissioner Victoria,  Duress, Necessity and Coercion, Melbourne: The Commissioner, 1978,  50 p., (series;  Law Reform Commissioner Working Paper No. 5),  ISBN: 0724117784;
 

___________Law Reform Commission of Victoria, Homicide, [Melbourne] : Law Reform Commission of Victoria, [1991], vi, 166 p., see "Complete defences: duress and necessity" at pp. 100-106 (series; report no. 40), (Chairperson: David St.L. Kelly and Commissioner in Charge: Dr David Neal), ISSN: 08187320 and ISBN: 730623149;
 

___________Law Reform Commission of Victoria, Homicide, [Melbourne]: Law Reform Commission of Victoria, 1988, 72 p., see pp. 31 and 63-65 (series; Discussion Paper No. 13), (Chairperson: David St.L. Kelly and Commissioner in Charge: Dr David Neal - from 1.7.87), ISSN: 08186413 and ISBN: 0724167137;
 

___________Review Committee, Review of Commonwealth Criminal Law - Interim Report - Principles of Criminal Responsibility and Other Matters, Canberra: Australian Government Publishing Service, 1990,  see chapter 12, "Duress and Necessity", pp. 127-151 and pp. 11-13 of Part IX, Draft Bill,  (Chairman: Sir Harry Gibbs), ISBN: 0644127244;


___________Victoria, Crimes (Homicide) Act 2005, Act No. 77/2005, available at http://www.dms.dpc.vic.gov.au/Domino/Web_Notes/LDMS/PubStatbook.nsf/f932b66241ecf1b7ca256e92000e23be/F0B7C8D5D930EE26CA2570C1001F677F/$FILE/05-077a.pdf (accessed on 4 August 2006);  "the defenses of duress and necessity can now be interposed as complete defenses to the crimes of murder, manslaughter, and defensive homicide" (source: http://au.oup.com/content/general.asp?ContentID=1869, accessed on 4 August 2006);   
 

___________Victorian Law Reform Commission, Defences to Homicide: Issues Paper, Melbourne (Victoria): Victorian Law Reform Commission, 2002, ix, 129 p., on duress and necessity, see pp. 93-96 and 110, ISBN: 0957967853, available at  http://www.lawreform.vic.gov.au/CA256902000FE154/Lookup/Homicide/$file/Issues_Paper.pdf (accessed on 15 February 2003);
 

___________Victorian Law Reform Commission, Defences to Homicide -- Final Report, Melbourne (Victoria): Victorian Law Reform Commission, 2004, lvi, 360 p., on necessity and duress, see pp. 109-124, ISBN: 0975149776; available at  http://www.lawreform.vic.gov.au/CA256902000FE154/Lookup/Homicide_Final_Report/$file/FinalReport.pdf (accessed on 15 January 2005);
 

BACON, Francis, 1561-1626, The Works of Francis Bacon with a Life of the Author by Basil Montagu, 3 vols., Philadelphia: M. Murphy, 1876, see vol. 3, Law Tracts - Elements of the Common Laws of England, "The Maxims of The Law", "Regula V  - Necessitas inducit privilegium quoad jura privata", pp. 229-231;
 

BALLOUHEY-McQUEEN, Bénédicte, La notion de nécessité en droit pénal et en droit civil, thèse de doctorat, droit privé, Paris 1, 1997; dir. de thèse: Catherine Labrusse Riou;
 

BAUDRY, Henri, La force majeure en droit pénal, Lyon : Imprimerie Lyonnaise, 1938, 233 p. (thèse Lyon), texte non consulté, cité par la doctrine française; selon The National Union Catalog Pre-1956 Imprints, Londres : Mansell, 1969, vol. 39, p. 474, une copie se trouverait à la Librairie du Congrès, à l'Université Yale, à Harvard University;
 

BAYLES,  Michael D., Principles of Law: A Normative Analysis, Dordrecht: D. Reidel Publishing, A Member of the Kluwer Academic Publishers Group, 1987, xxi, 398 p., see " Lesser evils" at pp. 326-332, (series; Law and Philosophy Library), ISBN: 9027724121;
 

BEAUMANOIR, Philippe de Remi, sire de, ca. 1250-1296 et  Amédée Salmon,  1857-1920, Coutumes de Beauvaisis: Texte critique publie avec une introduction, un glossaire, et une table analytique par Amédée Salmon, Paris:  A. et J. Picard,  1970; note: "Reimpression de l'édition originale de 1899-[1900]"; copie à l'Université d'Ottawa, KJV 264 .B43 B424 1899a FTX; disponible à http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k2208269, Tome 1, et http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k220827p, Tome 2 (sites visités le 25 juillet 2006);  voir au tome 2, le chapitre 39, "Ici commence li .XLIX. chapitres de cest  livre liqueus parole des establissemens et du tans ou quel coustume ne doit pas estre gardee pour cause de necessités qui avienent", aux pp. 261-265;
 

___________The Coutumes de Beauvaisis of Philippe de Beaumanoir, translated by F.R.P. Akehurst, Philadelphia : University of Pennsylvania Press, c1992, :  xxxii, 749 p., and see chapter 39, "Here begins the forty-ninth chapter of this book which speaks of laws [establissemens] and the times when a custom should not be observed for reasons of necessity" (series; Middle Ages series), ISBN:  0812231058;

BENTHAM, Jeremy, An Introduction to The Principles of Morals and Legislation, New York: Hafner Press, 1948, lii, 378 p. (series; The Hafner Library of Classics), (reprint of the edition of 1823), see Chapter X, "Of Motives", p. 117 and chapter XIII, "Cases Unmeet For Punishment",  in particular pp. 174-175;
 

BENZIMRA, Eliahu C., Sorekh ve-hekhrah be-dine `onshin ba-mishpat ha-`Ivry : perek be-dine 'onsin / me'et 'Eliyahu S. Ben-Zimrah, Thesis (Doctor of Law)--Hebrew University, Jerusalem, 1975, 2 volumes; Title on added t.p.: Necessity and duress in Jewish criminal law; Table of contents and summary (49 leaves) in English; COPAC catalogue (United Kingdom);
 

BISHOP, Joel Prentiss, 1814-1901, Commentaries on the Criminal Law, vol. 1, 7th ed., Boston: Little, Brown, 1882,  xlviii, 803 p., see "Chapter XXIII. Necessity and Compulsion", at pp. 218-223 (reprint by Buffalo (N.Y.): William S. Hein, 1986, ISBN: 0899415474);
 

BLACKSTONE, William, 1723-1780, Commentaries on the Laws of  England: A Facsimile of the First Edition of 1765- 1769, Volume IV, Of Public Wrongs  (1769) with an Introduction by Thomas A. Green, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1979 (reprint for vol. 4 of Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1769), xvi, 436,  [vii], [53]  p., see  chapter 2, "Of the Persons Capable of committing Crimes", pp. 20-22, 27 and 31-32 and also at chapter 14, "Of Homicide", p. 186, excusable homicide;
 

BRAUTI, Peter M., 1968-, and Brian G. Puddington, 1975-, Prosecuting and defending drug offences, Aurora (Ont.): Canada Law Book, c2003, xlvi, 490 p., see "Necessity", at pp. 15-16, ISBN: 0888043775; copy at Carleton University,  Floor 4, KE9050 .B73 2003;
 

BURCHELL, E.M., J.R.L. Milton and J.M. Burchell, South African Criminal Law and Procedure, Vol I, General Principles of Criminal Law by EM Burchell and PMA Hunt, 2nd ed., Cape Town: Juta, 1983, lxii, 512 p., see "Necessity" at pp. 335-351, ISBN: 070211345X (hardcover) and 0702113468 (softcover); research note: there is now a 3rd ed., Kenwyn: Juta, 1997, xxxviii, 383 p., (series;  South African criminal law and procedure; v. 1), ISBN: 070213855X which I have not consulted;
 

BURCHELL, Jonathan and John Milton, Principles of Criminal Law, Cape Town: Juta, 1991, xlvii, 669 p., see "Chapter 13 Necessity", pp. 129-149, and "Putative Necessity" at p. 292,  ISBN: 07212639X; research note: there is now a 2nd ed,  Kenwyn: Juta, 1997,  li, 734 p., ISBN: 0702138541;

 
BURLAMAQUI, Jean-Jacques, 1694-1748, Principes du droit de la nature et des gens [Document électronique]. Tome II / par J. J. Burlamaqui... ; nouv. éd. rev., corr., et augm. d'une table générale analytique... par M. Dupin, 1995, 485 p., Num. BNF de l'éd. de, Leiden : IDC, 1984. 6 microfiches ILM 141 (7-12) Reproduction de l'édition de, Paris : chez B. Warée, 1820; voir "Du Droit de la nécessité", aux pp. 375-394; disponible à  http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k93574g/f344.table (site visité le 2 juin 2006);


BUTLER, W.E. (William E.), Soviet Law, 2nd ed., London: Butterworths, 1988, xxiii, 430 p., see on extreme necessity, p. 305 (series; Butterworths' Legal Systems of the World), ISBN: 040656261X (hardcover) and 0406562644 (soft cover), ISSN: 0264-8636;


CALO, Zachary R., "Torture, Necessity, and Supreme Emergency: Law and Morality at the End of Law", (Summer 2009) 43(4) Valparaiso University Law Review 1591-1612; available at http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1406805 (accessed on 29 August 2009);
 

CAMUS, Geneviève, L'état de nécessité en démocratie, préface de Georges Morange, Paris : Librairie générale de droit et de jurisprudence, 1965, 428 p. (Collection;  Bibliothèque constitutionnelle et de science politique; t. 18); note de recherche : ne touche pas au droit pénal mais cité ici pour son intérêt pour le sujet;
 

THE CANON LAW SOCIETY OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND (prepared by) in association with The Canon Law Society of Australia and New Zealand and The Canadian Canon Law Society, The Code of Canon Law in English translation, London: Collins, 1983, xv, 319 p., see canons 1323 and 1324 at p. 234, ISBN: 000599750X (cased) and 0005997577 (limp);.
 

CAPITOLIN, Jean-Louis, La nécessité en droit, thèse de doctorat, droit, U.A.G., Schoelcher, Martinique, 1997, 473 p.; titre noté dans mes recherches mais thèse non consultée;

CARD, Richard, Card, Cross & Jones: Criminal Law, 12th ed., London: Butterworths, 1992, xxxvi, 570 p., see pp. 528-534 on necessity, ISBN; 0406000867; research note: there are now newer editions;
 

CARDAHI, Choucri Al, 1890-,  L'état de nécessité en matière pénale d'après la doctrine et la jurisprudence, [Beyrouth? 1924?],  [35] p; note de recherche : document non consulté et information provenant de Hollis, catalogue informatisé de l'Université Harvard;


CARDOZO, Benjamin Nathan, 1870-1938, Selected Writings of Benjamin Nathan Cardozo.  The Choice of Tycho Brahe.  Including the Complete Texts of Nature of the Judicial Process.  Growth of the Law.  Paradoxes of the Law.  Paradoxes of Legal Science.  Law and Litterature, Edited by Margaret E. Hall With a Foreword by Edwin W. Patterson, Albany (N.Y.): Matthew Bender, 1975 (reprint of 1947 edition), xxiv, 456 p., and see the discussion of the cases of U.S. v. Holmes and Queen v. Dudley, at pp. 388-390 (part of Law and Litterature); copy at the University of Ottawa, FTX General, Kf 213 .C37 H35 1947b; 
 

CASSESE, Antonio, International criminal law, Oxford; New York : Oxford University Press, 2003, lvi, 472 p., see "Necessity and Duress", at pp. 242-251, ISBN: 0199261288 and  0199259119 (pbk); copy at the Library of the Supreme Court of Canada, K5000 C37 2003 c. 01;
 

CHADUFAU, Émilie, 1978-, Légitime défense et état de nécessité, Mémoire de DEA : Droit pénal : Bordeaux 4 : 2001, 58 f.; titre noté dans mes recherches mais mémoire non consulté (17 août 2005);
 

CHINA, Penal Code section 21;

Article 21. Criminal responsibility is not to be borne for damage resulting from an act of urgent danger prevention that must be undertaken in order to avert the occurrence of present danger to the state or public interest or the rights of the person, property rights, or other rights of the actor or of other people.

Criminal responsibility shall be borne where urgent danger prevention exceeds the necessary limits and causes undue harm. However, consideration shall be given according to the circumstances to imposing a mitigated punishment or to granting exemption from punishment.

The provisions of the first paragraph with respect to preventing danger to oneself do not apply to a person who bears specific responsibility in his post or profession.

CICERO, De Officiis, Book 3, xxiii, translated by Thomas Cockman, The Offices, 44 BC, available at  http://www.4literature.net/Cicero/Offices/2.html (accessed on 19 December 2002);
"XXIII. - Several doubtful cases put by Hecaton the Rhodian. -

Hecaton proposes, in his sixth book of Offices, several questions, such as these which follow. Whether a good man, in time of great carcity, may refuse to give victuals to the servants of his own family? He discourses indeed on either side of the question; but at last concludes, that he should rather be guided by his interest than humanity. He demands again, if a merchant in a storm be forced to throw his goods overboard, whether of the two he should choose to cast away; a very valuable horse, or a servant that is good for nothing? Here interest and the saving of his goods draw one way, and compassion of human nature another. Should a fool in a shipwreck have gotten a plank, may a wise man take it away from him if he can? He answers, no; because it would be plainly a piece of injustice. But what if the owner of the ship should come, may not he take away, when it properly belongs to him? No, not at all; no more than he may throw a man out of the ship, under the pretence that the ship belongs to him; for till they have arrived whither the ship was hired for, it does not more properly belong to the owner than it does to the passengers by whom it was hired. Suppose two men that are equally wise, should both of them in a shipwreck lay hold of the same plank; may either of them seize on it forcibly to himself, or should one of them voluntarily yield it to the other? Let one yield to the other, provided that other will be more serviceable to the public, or there is more depending on his life and preservation. But what if these are equal in either of them? Why then there is no more to be said about it, but it must even be left for chance to determine, as though they should cast lots, or play at even and odd for it. What if a father should rifle temples, and dig passages under ground into the treasury; should the son discover him to the public magistrate? No; that were a horrid, unnatural impiety; he should rather on the contrary, defend his father, if any one else should pretend to accuse him. But what? ought not the interest of my country to be consulted before that of any one else whatever? Yes, undeniably; but then it is very much the interest of your country to have citizens that are dutiful and obedient to their parents. But if a father should attempt to make himself king, or any ways endeavour to betray his country, should a son in such a case hold his tongue, and conceal it? In the first place, let him beg of his father to desist: if that does no good, let him proceed to rebuke, and even to threaten him about it: but if at last he perceive that it directly tends to the ruin of his country, he should prefer its safety before that of his father. Another of the questions he proposes is this:- Suppose a good man to receive, by an oversight, bad money for good, and afterwards come to understand that it is bad; may he pay it for good, if he owes another anything? Diogenes thinks he may, but Antipater not; whom I rather assent to. Suppose a man be selling a vessel of wine, which he knows will not keep; is he bound to tell of this? Diogenes thinks he is under no such obligation; Antipater will have it to be every honest man's duty. These are the things which, whether they are right, and one's duty, or not, are often controverted among the Stoics. In selling a slave, is one bound to declare what his faults are, or not? I do not mean those which, unless they are told, the law itself commands he shall be returned on our hands; but his being a liar, a filcher, a player at dice, or a drunkard. One is of opinion we ought to declare them, and the other not. Should an ignorant body sell a quantity of gold, and suppose it to be copper; is a good man obliged to tell him that it is gold, or may he buy for a penny what is worth a thousand pence? It is plain enough by this time what my thoughts are, and wherein consists the controversy between the fore-mentioned philosophers." (see http://www.4literature.net/Cicero/Offices/47.html, accessed on 19 December 2002).


CICERON, De officiis, livre 3, chapitre 23; disponible à http://remacle.org/bloodwolf/philosophes/Ciceron/officiis3.htm  (vérifié le 7 octobre 2007);


CLARKSON, C.M.V. (Christopher M.V.) and H.M. Keating, Criminal Law: Text and Materials, 1st ed., London: Sweet &  Maxwell, 1984, xxxiv, 590 p., see "Necessity" at pp. 259-268 ISBN: 042130920 and 042130930X (pbk.); research note: there is now a 3rd ed. which I have not consulted:  London: Sweet & Maxwell, 1994. xlvii, 828 p., ISBN: 0421482109;
 

CLARKSON, C.M.V. (Christopher M.V.), Understanding Criminal Law, 2nd ed., London: Fontana Press, 1995, x, 274 p., see "Duress" at pp. 85-88 (series; Understanding Law; series editor: J.A.G. Griffith), ISBN: 0006862950;
 

Code pénal [de la France] 1997-1998, édition réalisée par Hervé Pelletier Jean Perfetti, Paris : Litec, 1997, lxxxviii, 1879 p., voir l'art. 122-7 sur l'état de nécessité suivit de commentaires et références à la jurisprudence aux pp. 33-35, ISSN : 0248-5804 et ISBN : 2711128210;
 


Code pénal de la Suisse,  art. 17, "État de nécessité licite" et art. 18 "État de nécessité excusable"; disponible à http://www.admin.ch/ch/f/rs/c311_0.html (consulté le 22 septembre 2007);
"État de nécessité licite
Art. 17

Quiconque commet un acte punissable pour préserver d’un danger imminent et impossible à détourner autrement un bien juridique lui appartenant ou appartenant à un tiers agit de manière licite s’il sauvegarde ainsi des intérêts prépondérants.


"État de nécessité excusable
Art. 18
1 Si l’auteur commet un acte punissable pour se préserver ou préserver autrui d’un danger imminent et impossible à détourner autrement menaçant la vie, l’intégrité corporelle, la liberté, l’honneur, le patrimoine ou d’autres biens essentiels, le juge atténue la peine si le sacrifice du bien menacé pouvait être raisonnablement exigé de lui.

2 L’auteur n’agit pas de manière coupable si le sacrifice du bien menacé ne pouvait être raisonnablement exigé de lui."

CONSEIL FÉDÉRAL, Message concernant la modification du Code pénal suisse (dispositions générales, entrée en vigueur et application du Code pénal) et du Code pénal militaire ainsi qu'une loi fédérale régissant la condition pénale des mineurs du 21 septembre 1998, dans FF (Feuille fédérale) 199 II, pp. 1787-2221; disponible à  http://www.ofj.admin.ch/themen/stgb-at/bot-stgb-at-f.pdf (visionné le 2 juillet 2003); sur l'état de nécessité licite ou justifiée, voir les pp. 1812-1813 (commentaires) et la p. 2105 (pour la disposition proposée); sur l'état de nécessité excusable, voir les pp. 1816 (commentaires) et 2106 (pour la disposition proposée); importante contribution;

 
"Art. 16 -- État de nécessité licite

Quiconque commet un acte punissable pour préserver d'un  danger imminent et impossible à détourner autrement un bien juridique lui appartenant ou appartenant à un tiers agit de manière licite s'il sauvegarde ainsi des intérêts prépondérants." (p. 2105)

.........

"Art. 21  -- État de nécessité excusable

1  Si l'auteur commet un acte punissable pour se préserver ou préserver un ami ou un proche d'un danger imminent et impossible à détourner autrement, menaçant la vie, l'intégrité corporelle ou d'autres biens essentiels, le tribunal atténue la peine si le sacrifice du bien menacé pouvait être raisonnablement exigé de lui.

2  L'auteur n'agit pas de façon coupable si le sacrifice du bien menacé ne pouvait être raisonnablement exigé de lui." (p. 2106)
 

COUNCIL OF EUROPE, Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Dignity of the Human Being with regard to the Application of Biology and Medicine: Convention on Human Rights and Biomedicine Oviedo, 4.IV.1997; available at  http://conventions.coe.int/treaty/en/treaties/html/164.htm (accessed on 5 June 2005);
"Article 8 – Emergency situation

     When because of an emergency situation the appropriate consent cannot be obtained, any medically necessary intervention may be carried out immediately for the benefit of the health of the individual concerned."


COUVREUR, Gilles, Les pauvres ont-ils des droits? Recherches sur le vol en cas d'extrême nécessité, depuis la Concordia de Gratien (1140) jusqu'à Guillaume D'Auxerre (+1231), Roma : Libreria editrice del l'Universita gregoriana, 1961, xxxix, 346 p., (series/collection : Analecta Gregoriana, cura Pontificiae Universitatis Gregoriane edita, v. 111. Series Facultatis Theologicae: sectio B, n. 34); disponible en partie à http://books.google.com/books?id=0APdB-cvriIC&pg=PA89&dq=furtum+vol+%22droit+romain+%22&lr=&as_brr=3&sig=ACfU3U0kGS5L60YGEZOzcRCEyjkS6hihfw (vérifié le 26 août 2008);  note de recherche: magnifique travail!
 

Criminal Code of Croatia in English, available at http://www.vsrh.hr/CustomPages/Static/HRV/Files/Legislation__Criminal-Code.doc, (accessed on 26 September 2007);

"Necessity
Article 30
(1) There shall be no criminal offense when the perpetrator has acted in order to avert from himself or from another an imminent danger which could not have been averted in any other way, provided that in doing so a lesser harm was done than that which had been threatened.

(2) The perpetrator is not culpable if he has committed an illegal act in order to avert from himself or from another an imminent danger which could not have been averted in any other way, provided that in doing so the harm that is done is not disproportionally greater than that which had been threatened.

(3) If, in the case referred to in paragraph 2 of this Article, the perpetrator  was avoidably mistaken about the circumstances which exclude culpability, he shall be punished for negligence if, for the committed offense, the Code prescribes punishment for negligence.

(4) The defense of necessity is not available if the perpetrator was obligated to expose himself to danger.


Coercion or Threat
Article 31
(1) There shall be no criminal offense when the perpetrator acts under the influence of irresistible coercion.

(2) If the perpetrator commits a criminal offense under resistible coercion or threat, the provisions of Article 30 of this Code shall apply, treating such coercion or threat as a danger."
 

DADOMO, Christian and Susan Farran, French Substantive Law --Key Elements, London: Sweet & Maxwell, 1997, xxii, 232 p., and see "État de Necessité", at pp. 217-219 and "Contrainte" at pp. 221-222, ISBN: 0421525509; copy at the Library of the Supreme Court of Canada, KJV 233 D332 1997;


DANA, Adrien-Charles, Essai sur la notion d'infraction pénale, Paris : Librairie générale de droit et de jurisprudence, 1982, xiii, 568 p., voir les pp. 199-216 (Collection; Bibliothèque de sciences criminelles, tome 24);
 

DANDO, Shigemitsu, 1913-,  The Criminal Law of Japan: The General Part,  Littleton (Colorado): Fred B. Rothman, 1997, xxiv, 521 p.  (Series; Publications of the Comparative Criminal  Law Project, vol. 19), see in particular Section 6.10 Averting Imminent Danger, at pp. 123-128, ISBN: 083770653X; research note: German criminal law is influential in the criminal law theory of Japan;
 

DANILENKO, Gennady M. and William Burnham, Law and Legal System of the Russian Federation, [Yonkers, NY]: Juris Pubnlishing, 1999, xiii, 636, [9], [23] p., ISBN: 157823053, see Chapter XI, "Criminal Law" at pp. 547-589 and more particularly, pp. 554-558 on "'Necessary Defense' and Detention of an Offender",  (Note: above the title: "Parker School of Foreign and Comparative Law Columbia University");
 

D'AQUIN, Thomas (SAINT), 1225-1274, Somme théologique,  t. 3, Paris : Éditions du Cerf, 1985, voir la II-II (la 2e section de la deuxième partie), pp. 442-443, question 66, article 7, "Est-il permis de voler en cas de nécessité?"; research note: for the English text, see Aquinas, supra;
 

DAVIS, Nancy, "The Priority of Avoiding Harm",  in Steinbock, B., ed., Killing and Letting Die,  Englewood Cliffs (N.J.):  Prentice-Hall, 1980, viii, 239 p. at pp. 172-214;
 

DELASSALLE,  Aymeri, 1977-,  Les moyens de défense de nécessité et de contrainte en droit pénal international, mémoire de  maîtrise en droit international M9763, Université du Québec à Montréal, janvier 2007, vii, 101 f.; titre noté dans mes recherches mais thèse non consultée; résumé et table des matières disponibles à http://www.er.uqam.ca/nobel/juris/memoires/delassalle_a.pdf (vérifié le 3 juin 2008);


DEVINE, Philip E., 1944-,  The Ethics of Homicide, Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 1978, 248 p., ISBN: 0801411734, see pp. 145-151 on "Extreme Necessity";

 

DONNEDIEU DE VABRES, H., Traité de droit criminel et de législation pénale comparée, Paris : Librairie du Recueil Sirey, 1947, xvii, 1059 p., voir les pp. 218-226 sur l'état de nécessité; j'ai mis ce livre en format pdf sur l'internet, voir à ma page  http://www.lareau-law.ca/DigitalLibraryTwo.html;
 

Dossier, "Atelier sur l'article 31 par. 1c) du Statut de la Cour Pénale internationale (Coordonné par Eric David)", (2000) 33(2) Revue belge de droit international 355-488; copie à l'Université d'Ottawa, Périodiques FTX, K21 .E87;

"TABLE DES MATIÈRES

Introduction générale
(par ERIC DAVID, Professeur à l'Université Libre de Bruxelles)...355
 

PREMIÈRE PARTIE
Questions écrites préliminaires et réponses

Questions relatives à l'art. 31.  § 1, c du Statut de la Cour pénale internationale
(par ERIC DAVID, Professeur à l'Université Libre de Bruxelles)...359

Réponses à la question 1 a)
(par J. SALMON, Professeur à l'Université Libre de Bruxelles et P. KLEIN, Chargé de cours à l'Université Libre de Bruxelles)...363

Réponses à la question 1 a)
(par A. PELLET, Professeur à l'Université de Paris X -- Nanterre et S. SZUREK, Professeur à l'Université de Rennes)...374

Réponses à la question 1 b)
(par G. ABI SAAB, Professeur à l'Institut des Hautes Études Internationales de Genève et L. CONDORELLI, Professeur à l'Université de Genève)...406

Réponses à la question 1 b)
(par M. DEYRA, Professeur à l'Université de Clermont-Ferrand et C. CHABANON, Professeur d'enseignement à l'Université de Clermont-Ferrand)...409

Réponses à la question 2
(par A. ANDRIES, Premier avocat général émérite à l'auditorat militaire et J. VERHAEGEN, Professeur émérite de l'Université Catholique de Louvain)...428

Réponses à la question 2
(par N. KEIJZER, Professeur émérite de l'Université de Leiden)...440

Réponses à la question 2
(par Gabor RONA, Conseiller juridique au C.I.C.R.)...446

Réponses à la question 2
(par D. VANDERMEERSCH, Juge d'Instruction du Tribunal de 1e Instance de Bruxelles)...453

Synthèse des réponses écrites
(par ERIC DAVID, Professeur à l'Université Libre de Bruxelles)...455
 

DEUXIÈME PARTIE
Synthèse des débats de l'atelier du 12 juillet 2000

I. --  La responsabilité des Etats en droit international et les circonstances excluant l'illiceité...464

II. -- La responsabilité pénale individuelle, les causes de justification et l'incidence de l'article 31.1 c) du statut de la Cour pénale internationale...473
 

TROISIÈME PARTIE
Annexes

ANNEXE 1 : Avis du Conseil d'Etat du 21 avril 1999...484

ANNEXE 2 : Résolution adoptée par la Chambre des représentants le 14 juillet 2000...487

ANNEXE 3 : Déclarations faites par la belgique lors de la ratification du statut de la Cour pénale internationale...488" (pp. 353-354)


DRESSLER, Joshua, Understanding Criminal Law, 2nd ed., New York : Matthew Bender, 1995, xli, 556,  [13], [9] p., see chapter 22, "Necessity",  at pp. 261-272,   ISBN: 0820527173 (series; Legal Text Series);
 

DUVAL, Jacques E., Des notions de contrainte morale d'état de nécessité appliquées aux crimes et délits contre la sûreté de l'État, Bruxelles: É. Bruylant, 1945, 26 p.; deals with necessity law in Belgium and political crimes; there does not appear to be any copy of this book in Canadian libraries; titre non consulté;
 

EAST,  Edward Hyde, 1764-1847, A Treatise of the Pleas of the Crown, vol. 1, London: Butterworth, 1803, lxiv, 480 p., see "Necessity induced by mutual misfortune" at p. 294;
 

ESER, Albin,  Otto Triffterer, Otto Lagodny, Dorean Koenig with the assistance of Kai Ambos and Hans Vest, "General Part Draft 1996 to be included in:Association Internationale de Droit Pénal (AIDP)/International Institute of Higher Studies in Criminal Sciences (ISISC)/Max Planck  Institute for Foreign and International Criminal Law (MPI) et al., 1994 ILC Draft Statute for an International Criminal Court with suggested modifications (updated Siracusa-Draft), prepared by a committee of experts, Siracusa/Freiburg/Chicago, 15 March 1996", see  http://www.iuscrim.mpg.de/info/aktuell/projekte/genpart3.html;
 

ETTINGER, Shimshon, Self-Help in Jewish Law, Tel-Aviv : Open University of Israel (Everyman's University); Boston : The Institute  of  Jewish Law, Boston University School of Law, 1993, 95 p.(series; Selected Topics in Jewish Law; Hanina Ben-Menahem and Neil S. Hecht, eds.; volume 6), (series; The Institute  of  Jewish Law, Boston University School of Law,publication number 18), ISBN:  9653024140 (Vol. 6);  copy at Ottawa University, KMK 440 .S43513 1987 v. 6,  FTX;
 

FABISCH, Joseph, Essai sur l'état de nécessité, Lyon : Legendre & Cie, 1903, [5], 202 p., (thèse de l'Université de Grenoble); texte non consulté, cité par la doctrine française, selon The National Union Catalog Pre-1956 Imprints, Londres : Mansell, 1971, vol. 165, p. 228, une copie se trouverait à l'University of America Library, District of Columbia;
 

FALCON Y TELLA, Maria José and Fernando Falcon Y Tella, Punishment and culture: a right to punish?, translation into English by Peter Muckley, Boston : M. Nijhoff c2006, xix, 267 p., ISBN: 9004151494; copy at the Library of Parliament K5103F37 2006e;

"An argument, likewise counter to the existence in Kant of only a retributive basis to imposing punishments, may be extracted from a work which is not strictly penal.  This is the 'Introduction to the Theoryof Law', more particularly, those passages dedicated to the right of necessity.  As one of the cases, together with equity, which illustrate the right, there is what Kant calls 'Mistaken Right' (Zweideutigen Recht).  This consists in the 'taking away someone's life who has not threatened me always and only when my own life is in danger.'  As example might be a shipwrecked man who, in danger of death, throws overboard his partner in misery, to keep him afloat and so be able to save his own life.  The curious thing is the justification Kant gives for such conduct.  He does not consider it exempt from punishment (inculpabile), but rather as being unsusceptible to punishment (inimputable).  Kant treats it as an example of the non-imputable, not as a case of pardon or the right to grace." (p. 143)

FARGE, Arlette, Délinquance et Criminalité: Le vol d'aliments à Paris au XVIIIe siècle, Paris: Plon, 1974, 254 p., voir le Chapitre III (Partie I), " 'Le pauvre a-t-il des droits (1)?'  Ou la nécessité entraîne-t-elle l'impunité?" aux pp. 51-54; copie à l'Université d'Ottawa, MRT général, HV 6665 .F8F37 1974;

"Finalement, le cas de nécessité apparaît comme une clause de style: il existe mais ne peut jamais s'appliquer.  La nécessité est un concept admis, soit, par contre il est mal admis qu'il puisse y avoir des nécessiteux." (p. 54)


FAUCANIE, Jean-François, La notion de contrainte en droit pénal, thèse de doctorat (nouveau doctorat), droit pénal, Nice, 1994; directeur de la thèse: Roger Bernardini;  texte non consulté; résumé au catalogue Abes, voir http://corail.sudoc.abes.fr/DB=2.1/SET=3/TTL=1/CMD?ACT=SRCHA&IKT=4&SRT=RLV&TRM=La+notion+de+contrainte+en+droit+p%E9nal (visionné le 11 janvier 2003);
 

FELDBRUGGE, F.J. (F.J. M. = Ferdinand Joseph Maria), 1933-,  Soviet Criminal Law: General Part, Leyden: A.W. Sythoff, 1964, 291 p. (series; "Law in Eastern Europe: A series of publications issued by the Documentation Office for East European Law University of Leyden", edited by Z. Szirmai, vol. 9); Research Notes: see on "Extreme necessity", pp. 118-121; self-defence is referred to in the book as "Necessary defence"; the Soviet Union does not exist any more and Russia has a new Criminal Code;
 

FICHTE, Johann Gottlieb, 1762-1814, Foundations of natural right : according to the principles of the Wissenschaftslehre, edited by Frederick Neuhouser; translated by Michael Baur, Cambridge (U.K.) and New York : Cambridge University Press, 2000, xxxv, 338 p., on necessity, see pp. 220-221 (series; Cambridge texts in the history of philosophy); ISBN: 0521575915 and 0521573017 (pbk.); copy at Carleton University, Ottawa, JC 181 .F6213; copy at Ottawa University, MRT General, K487 .S3 F52413 2000;
 

FILANGIERI, Gaetano (Monsieur le Chevalier), La science de la législation / ouvrage traduit de l'italien, d'après l'édition de Naples, de 1784, 2e éd. rev. et corr., Paris : Chez Dufart, Imprimeur-Libraire, an septième [i.e. 1799], 7 volumes, voir le volume 4, livre 2? (ou 4?), chapitre 13, pp. 155-166; note: traduction de: La scienza della legislazione; copie à la bibliothèque de l'Assemblée nationale du Québec, 340.1 F478 1799 F  1-7;  note: la Bibliothèque nationale du Québec possède une copie de l'édition de ouvrage traduit de l'Italien [par Jean Antoine Gauvin, dit Gallois], Paris : Cuchet, 1786, 7 tomes reliés en 3 vol., 340.04/F471g; titre noté dans mes recherches mais livre pas encore consulté;
 

FISSE, Brent, Howard's Criminal Law, 5th ed., Sydney: The Law Book Company, 1990, cxxiii, 660 p., see pp. 555-567 on necessity, ISBN: 0455207321 and 045520733X (pbk.);
 

FLASAQUIER, Antoine, L'état de nécessité en droit pénal : Contribution à la théorie générale des faits justificatifs, Thèse doctorat : Droit privé : Montpellier 1 : 2003, 510 feuilles; Thèse : 2003MON10028; dir. de thèse, Christine Lazerges;

"Résumé

L'état de nécessité, notion prétorienne sous l'empire de l'ancien code pénal, a été introduit dans le code pénal en 1994, à l'article 122-7, dans le chapitre réactif aux " causes d'irresponsabilité ".  Cette légalisation présente cependant d'important défauts, insuffisances et incohérences. Il a donc paru nécessaire de reprendre son étude dans l'objectif d'en proposer une définition plus pertinente.

Ce travail essaye de déduire de son fondement, la nature et le régime de l'état de nécessité. Elle aboutit à donner un cadre plus général à cette notion en réhabilitant la catégorie juridique des faits justificatifs et en l'y introduisant. L'état de nécessité est un acte qui n'a pas d'effet socialement nuisible. Dès lors, en vertu des articles 4, 5 et 8 de la Déclaration des droits de l'homme et du citoyen de 1789 et du principe de relativité de la loi pénale, le droit est dans l'impossibilité de la sanctionner. Ces conséquences sociales des actes commis en état de nécessité ne sont cependant pas propres à cette cause de non-punissabilité. L'ordre et l'autorisation de la loi, le commandement de l'autorité légitime ainsi que la légitime défense sont pareillement socialement utiles ou neutres. Ce fondement commun permet de réhabiliter les faits justificatifs de les distinguer des causes d'irresponsabilité qui visent des actes conservant leur caractère délictueux.

De ce fondement commun peut être dégager une nature ainsi qu'un régime, tant pénal que civil, communs à ces différents techniques d'exonération de responsabilité. L'étude permet donc de déduire un régime complet et clair de l'état de nécessité et de proposer son insertion dans un chapitre nouveau du code pénal, relatif aux faits justificatifs dont il aura préalablement été dégagé une théorie générale. Cette dernière assure non seulement une cohérence de la définition de l'état de nécessité, mais aussi des relations existantes entre les différentes causes de justification." (catalogue Abès, système universitaire de documentation, disponible à  http://www.sudoc.abes.fr/)


FLETCHER, George P., Basic Concepts of Criminal Law, New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998, see pp. 130-132, 138-145, ISBN: 0195121708 and 0195121716 (pbk.);
 

___________Rethinking Criminal Law, Boston: Little, Brown, 1978, xxviii, 898 p.;
 

FOOT, Philippa, Virtues and Vices and Other Essays in Moral Philosophy, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1978, xiv, 207 p.,  see chapter 2,  "The Problem of Abortion and the Doctrine of the Double Effect", pp. 19-32, ISBN: 0520036867 and 0520043960 (pbk.); also published in (1967) 5 Oxford Review 5-15;
 

FORIERS, Paul, De l'état de nécessité en droit pénal, Bruxelles : Bruylant et Paris : Librairie du Recueil Sirey, 1951, xxx, 364 p.;
 

FRIEDLAND, M.L. (Martin Lawrence), 1932-,  and Kent Roach, 1961-, Criminal Law and Procedure : Cases and Materials, 8th ed., Toronto: Emond Montgomery Publications, 1997,  xxvii, 1020 p., ISBN: 0920722962, see on necessity, pp. 843-865;
 

GAUTHIER, Jean (Monsieur le Professeur), Cours de droit pénal suisse, 2ème partie: L'infraction, Lausanne-Dorigny : Université de Lausanne (polycopies), janvier 1991, 158 p., voir «l"état de nécessité» aux pp. 44-49;
 

GILLES, Peter, Criminal Law, 4rd ed., North Ryde (Australia): The Law Book, 1997, lxviii, 862 p., see Chapter 17 on necessity at  pp. 358-362, ISBN: 0455215103;
 

GORDON, Gerald H., The Criminal Law of Scotland, 2nd ed., Edinburg: W. Green, 1978, lxxix, 1174 p., see pp. 420-429 on necessity, ISBN: 0414006186; see also, by the same author, the subsequent The Criminal Law of Scotland: First Supplement to the Second Edition Up to date to May 1, 1984, Edinburg: W. Green, 1984,  paragraphs 13-13 and 13-18, ISBN: 0414007409; research note: there is a second supplement which I have not consulted;
 

GRAVEN, Philippe, L'infraction pénale punissable, Berne : Éditions Staempfli, 1993, xv, 346 p., voir les pp. 130-144 sur l'art. 34 du Code pénal suisse, état de nécessité (Collection; Précis de droit Staempfli), ISBN: 372720978X;
 

GRAVEN, Philippe, An Introduction to Ethiopian Penal Law (Arts. 1-84 Penal Code), Addis Ababa, The Faculty of Law Haile Sellassie 1 University & Oxford University Press, 1965, vii, 289 p., see article 71 on necessity at pp. 207-213, article 72 on excess of necessity at p.. 213-217 and article 73 "military state of necessity" at pp. 217-220;
 

GREAT BRITAIN, Criminal Code Bill Commission, Report of the Royal Commission Appointed to Consider the Law Relating to Indictable Offences: With an Appendix Containing a Draft Code Embodying the Suggestions of the Commissioners, Command number 2345 in Sessional Papers [British Parliamentary Papers] (1878-79), vol. 20, pp. 169-378, see pp. 179 and 211-212 (Chairperson: C.B. Blackburn); also published in Irish University Press Series of British Parliamentary Papers: Royal Commission Select Committee and Other Reports on the Criminal Law with Proceedings Minutes of Evidence Appendix and Index 1847-79, vol. 6, Legal Administration Criminal Law, Dublin: Shannon University Press, 1971, pp. 369-579, at p. 378 and 411-412,  ISBN: 0716511428;  Research Note: for Command Paper number 2345, the pages are pp.10 and 43-44;
 

___________Fourth Report of Her Majesty's Commissioners on Criminal Law, command number 168 in  Sessional Papers [British Parliamentary Papers]1839, volume 19, pp. 235-432, see "Digest of Offences against the Person", at p. 271, art. 39,  "Homicide Justifiable For Self-Preservation"; this Fourth Report is also published in Irish University Press Series of British Parliamentary Papers: Reports From The Royal Commission On The Criminal Law With Appendices And index 1834-41, vol.3, Legal Administration Criminal Law, Dublin: Shannon University Press, 1971, 233-430 at p. 269, ISBN: 0716511398; Research Note: for Command Paper number 168, the page is xxxvii;
 

___________House of Commons,  Bill 178, Criminal Code (Indictable Offences) Bill, 1878 in  Sessional Papers [British Parliamentary Papers] (1878), vol. 2, pp. 5-249 at pp. 39-40, section 23 "Necessity"; research notes: Bill 178 was drafted by Sir James Stephen, available at http://www.lareau-law.ca/DigitalLibrary.html;  and for comments by Stephen on that Bill, see GREAT BRITAIN, House of Commons,  "Memorandum [by Sir James Stephen] 'Showing the ALTERATIONS proposed to be made in the existing Law by the CRIMINAL CODE (INDICTABLE OFFENCES) Bill [Bill 178], if Amended, as proposed by the Attorney General'", infra;
 

___________The Law Commission, Codification of the Criminal Law: A Report to the Law Commission, London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office, 1985, see comments on clause 46, "Defence of necessity" at pp. 119-121 and clause 46 at p. 195 (series; Law Com. No. 143), ISBN:  0102270856;
 

___________ The Law Commission, Codification of the Criminal Law - General Principles - Defences of General Application, London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office, 1974,  iv, 61 p., see  pp. 20-39 on necessity;  (Series; Working Paper No 55,  Second Programme, Item XVIII),   ISBN: 0117300861;
 

__________The Law Commission, A Criminal Code for England and Wales, vol. 1: Report and Draft Criminal Code Bill and vol. 2: Commentary on Draft Criminal Code Bill, London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office, [1989], v, 278 p. see vol. 1, p. 61, clause 43 on "Duress of circumstances"  and vol. 2, pp. 230-231, comments on clause 43  (series; Law Com. No. 177), ISBN: 0102299897;
 

___________The Law Commission, Criminal Law: Legislating the Criminal Code: Offences against the Person and General Principles, London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office, 1993, vi, 144 p., see "Duress of Circumstances" at pp. 62-65 and  clause 26 of the "Draft Criminal Law Bill" on duress of circumstances at pp. 106-107 (series; Law Com. No. 218), ISBN: 0101237022;
 

___________The Law Commission, Criminal Law: Legislating the Criminal Code : Offences against the Person and General Principles - A Consultation Paper, London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office, 1992, v, 131 p., see "Duress of Circumstances" at pp. 60-62 and clause 27 of the "Draft Criminal Law Bill" on "Duress of circumstances" at p. 87  with an explanatory note at p. 112 (series; Consultation Paper No. 122),  ISBN: 011730204X;
 

___________The Law Commission, Criminal Law Report on Defences of General Application,  London: Her Majesty Stationery Office, 1977, v, 68 p., see pp. 19-32 and 54 (series; Law Com. No. 83),  (Chairman: The Honourable Mr. Justice Cooke), ISBN: 0102556776;


___________The Law Commission, Murder, Manslaughter and Infanticide, London: TSO (The Stationery Office), 2006, x, 265 p. (series; Law Com; 304), available at http://www.lawcom.gov.uk/docs/lc304.pdf (accessed on 4 December 2006);
 

___________"Memorandum [by Sir James Stephen] 'Showing the ALTERATIONS proposed to be made in the existing Law by the CRIMINAL CODE (INDICTABLE OFFENCES) Bill [Bill 178], if Amended, as proposed by the Attorney General'", number 276 in Sessional Papers [British Parliamentary Papers] (1878), vol. 63, pp. 159-175, see p. 161 for Stephen's comments on his "Clause 23 Necessity"; research note # 1: for Parliamentary Paper number 276,  the page is p. 3; available at http://www.lareau-law.ca/DigitalLibrary.html;  research note # 2: for Bill 178, see GREAT BRITAIN, House of Commons, Bill 178, Criminal Code (Indictable Offences) Bill, 1878, supra;
 

___________Second Report of Her Majesty's Commissioners for Revising and Consolidating the Criminal Law,  c. 709 in Sessional Papers (1846), vol. 24, pp. 107-182, see p. 142, art. 19 note (f) on justifiable homicide; also published in Irish University Press Series of British Parliamentary Papers: Reports From The Royal Commission On Revising and Consolidating The Criminal Law With Appendices and Index 1845-49, vol. 5, Legal Administration Criminal Law, Dublin: Shannon University Press, 1971, pp. 169-244 at p. 204, ISBN: 071651141X; research note # 1: for Command Paper number 709, the pages is p. 36;
 

___________Special Report from the Select Committee on Homicide Law Amendment Bill; Together with the Proceedings of the Committee, Minutes of Evidence, and Appendix, number 315 in Sessional Papers [British Parliamentary Papers] (1874), vol. 9, pp. 471-556 and also 771-786 for the index (Chairperson:  R. Lowe), see in the "Draft of Bill suggested by Mr. Fitzjames Stephen" (not the one the Committee was studying but an amended one submitted by Stephen during the hearings of the Committee) at  p. 540, s. 17 (case of necessity) and s. 18 (Choice of evils); see also the dicussion by Stephen on necessity at Questions 318-319; also published in Irish University Press Series of British Parliamentary Papers: Royal Commission Select Committee and Other Reports on the Criminal Law with Proceedings Minutes of Evidence Appendix and Index 1847-79, vol. 6, Legal Administration Criminal Law, Dublin: Shannon University Press, 1971, pp. 97-194, at p. 177, ISBN: 0716511428; research note # 1: re p. 540, corresponds to p. 69 in command number 315 and to p. 177 in the Irish Press edition; research note # 2: Stephen's original Bill that was studied by the Committee is Bill 44, Homicide Act, 1874, is in Sessional Papers [British Parliamentary Papers] (1874) vol. 2, p. 365.

"You begin with Bracton first of all, where he says that homicide may be 'necessitate quo casu distinguendum erit utrum necessitas illa fuit evitabilis vel non.  Si evitabilis, et evadere possit absque occisione tunc erit reus homicidii.  Si antem inevitabilis, quia occidit hominem sine odii meditatione, in metu et dolore animi, se et sua literando, cum aliter evadere non possit, non tenetur ad poenam homicidii.'  That is the original authority.  If you went to Roman law, you would probably find earlier authority.

...Bracton is really older than the common law itself.  The next authority is Bacon's Maxims; it is the fifth maxim: 'Necessitas inducit priveligium quoad jura privata.' Then he quotes this case about two men on the plank.  All those cases are collected in 1 Russell, 892.  Bacon has been repeated by Dalton and repeated by East, and repeated by Russell in the ordinary way.  And you will find in the Indian Penal Code, Section 81, a section somewhat like this, though not quite the same.  I say that to show that it is not my invention."

[Testimony of Sir James Fitzjames Stephen before the Committee on Bill 44, the Homicide Act 1874, s. 17, on necessity, drafted by Stephen that the Committee is studying, Questions 319, p. 48 of command paper and p. 156 of the Irish Press edition.  This section  17 is not to be confused with s. 17 of "Draft of Bill suggested by Mr. Fitzjames Stephen" and found at the end of the proceedings of the Committee]
 


GREEN, Thomas Andrew, Verdict According to Conscience: Perspectives on the English Criminal Trial Jury 1200-1800, Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1985, xx, 409 p., see pp. 296-297, ISBN: 0226306100; Green discusses Blackstone's opinion on necessity versus poverty;
 

GREENAWALT, Kent, Conflicts of Law and Morality, New York: Oxford University Press, 1989, Chapter 13, "General Justification - Necessity", pp. 286-310, ISBN: 0195041100 and 0195058240 (pbk.);
 

GREENSPAN, Morris, The modern law of land warfare, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1959, xxiv, 724 p., and see on see on necessity, pp. 496-502; copy at the University of Ottawa, FTX General, KZ 6385 .G74 1959;
 

GROSS, Oren and Fionnuala Ní Aoláin, Law in times of crisis : emergency powers in theory and practice, Cambridge University Press, 2006, xxix, 481 p. (Series; Cambridge studies in international and comparative law), ISBN: 9780521833516 (hbk.), 9780521541237 (pbk.), 0521833515 (hbk.) and 0521541239 (pbk.);

GROTIUS, Hugo, 1583-1645,  Le droit de la guerre et de la paix nouvelle traduction par Jean Barbeyrac; avec les notes de l'auteur même, qui  n'avoient point encore paru en françois & de nouvelles notes du traducteur, tome 1 de 2, Caen (France):  Université de Caen, Centre de philosophie politique et juridique, 1984 (réimpression de: Amsterdam, P. de Coup, 1724), (Collection; (Bibliothèque de philosophie politique et juridique), xliii, 1001, [42] p. (pour les 2 tomes), voir tome 1, livre 2, ch. 2, «Des Droits Communs à tous les Hommes», § VI à IX, aux pp. 231-234; note de recherche: traduction de De jure belli ac pacis.
 

___________The Rights of War and Peace, Including the Law of Nature and of Nation Translated from the Original Latin of Grotius with Notes and Illustrations from Political and Local Writers by A.C. Campbell with an Introduction by David J. Hill, Washington (D.C.): M.W. Dunne, [1901], x, 423 p., see Book II, Chapter II, "The General Rights of Things", pp. 91-93;
 

GUILLOUARD, Jean, "De l'État de nécessité et du délit nécessaire" dans Joseph Laisné des Hayes, Barreau de Caen. Conférence des avocats stagiaires, année judiciaire 1901-1902. Procès-verbal de la séance solennelle de rentrée,  présidée par M. Laisné des Hayes. Allocuation de M. le bâtonnier. Discours de Me Jean Guillouard : de l'État de nécessité et du délit nécessaire. 10 janvier 1902, Caen : impr. de E. Lanier, 1902, 61 p.;  autre(s) auteur(s) :   Barreau de Caen. Conférence des avocats stagiaires, année judiciaire 1901-1902. Ed.; note: procès-verbal de la séance solennelle de rentrée, présidée par M. Laisné des Hayes. Allocuation de M. le bâtonnier. Discours de Me Jean Guillouard  de l'État de nécessité et du délit nécessaire. 10 janvier 1902 - ; titre noté dans ma recherche, mais pas encore consulté;
 

GUR-ARYE, Miriam, Actio Libera in Causa in Criminal Law,  Jerusalem : Harry Sacher Institute for Legislative Research and Comparative Law, Faculty of Law, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, 1984,  110 p.; Research Note: see in particular Chapter 3: "Action Libera in Causa and the Defences of Duress, Necessity and Private-Defence";

HALE,  Matthew, 1609-1676,  Historia Placitorum Coronae - The History of the Pleas of the Crown, Savoy (in the): E.R. Nutt and R. Gosling, 1736, vol. 1, Chapter IX, "Concerning the privilege by reason of necessity", pp. 52-58 (reprint of Abingdon Oxon: Professional Books, 1987; series: Classical English Law Texts); research note: see Hale's references to Britton (XIIIth cent.), Crompton, Plowden, Dalton's Justice at p. 54, note c;
 

HALL, Jerome, General Principles of Criminal Law, 2nd ed., Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1960, xii, 642 p., see chapter 12, "Necessity and Coercion", pp. 415-448;
 

HANSON, Neil, The custom of the sea: [a shocking true tale of shipwreck, murder, and the last taboo], New York : Wiley, 1999, 315 p., ISBN: 0385601158; title noted in my research but book not consulted yet; no copy in the Ottawa area libraries included in the AMICUS catalogue of Library and Archives Canada (verification of 15 July 2005);
 

HAWKINS, William, 1673-1746, A Treatise of the Pleas of the Crown: or a System of the Principal  Matters relating to that subject, digested under their proper Heads in Two Books, 2nd ed., London: Printed by E. Sayer for J. Walthoe, 1724, see Book I, chapter 28, "Of Justifiable Homicide", section 26, at p. 73 (reprint: Arno Press, 1972; ISBN: 0405039905 for complete collection of "American Law: The Formative Years");
 

HEGEL, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich 1770-1831, Principes de la philosophie du droit, traduit de l'allemand par André Kaan et préfacé par Hyppolite, Paris: Gallimard, 1940, 380 p.;

"127
  La particularité des intérêts de la volonté naturelle, condensée dans sa simple totalité, est l'être personnel comme vie.  Celle-ci, dans le danger suprême et dans le conflit avec la propriété juridique d'autrui, a un droit de détresse à faire valoir (non comme concession gracieuse mais comme droit), en tant que d'un côté il y a une violation infinie de l'être et donc une absence totale de droit, de l'autre, la violation seulement d'une existence limitée de la liberté.  Ainsi le droit comme tel et la capacité juridique de celui qui est lésé dans sa propriété sont reconnus en même temps." (pp. 159-160)


HEILPERNY, David with L. Rayner, "Drug Law and Necessity - Can necessity be a defence to possession or self-administration of cannabis?"", (1997) 22 Alternative Law Journal 188- 191;
 

HOBBES, Thomas, Leviathan, edited with an Introduction by C.B. MacPherson, Middlesex (England): Penguin Books, 1984 (reissued), chapter 27, "Of Crimes, Excuses, and Extenuations", pp. 335-353;
 

HOLMES, Oliver Wendell, The Common Law, Boston: Little, Brown, 1881 (56th printing, year?), xvi, 422, see Lecture II, "The Criminal Law",  pp. 39-76 at pp. 44 and 47;
 

HORDER, Jeremy, Excusing crime, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004,  xx, 295 p., (series; Oxford monographs on criminal law and justice),  ISBN: 0198264828; copy at the SCC Library, KF9235 H67 2004;
 

The Indian Penal Code, Allahabad: Orient Law House, 1985,  see p. 15, section 81 of the Code, "Act likely to cause harm, but done without criminal intent, and to prevent other harm";
 

INSTITUTE OF LAW RESEARCH AND REFORM, Defences to Provincial Charges, Edmonton: The Institute of Law Research and Reform, March 1984, ii, 123 p., see discussion of necessity at pp. 74-76 (series; Report No. 39);


INTERNATIONAL LAW COMMISSION, Responsibility of States for Internationnally Wrongful Acts, 2001, text  and comments at  http://www.un.org/law/ilc/  (accessed on 28 July 2006) / COMMISSION DU DROIT INTERNATIONAL, Responsabilité de l'État pour fait internationalement illicite, 2001, texte et commentaires à  http://www.un.org/law/ilc/  (accessed on 28 July 2006);

"Article 24
Distress
1. The wrongfulness of an act of a State not in conformity with an international obligation of that State is precluded if the author of the act in question has no other reasonable way, in a situation of distress, of saving the author’s life or the lives of other persons entrusted to the author’s care.
2. Paragraph 1 does not apply if:
(a) The situation of distress is due, either alone or in combination with other factors, to the conduct of the State invoking it; or
(b) The act in question is likely to create a comparable or greater peril.


Article 25
Necessity
1. Necessity may not be invoked by a State as a ground for precluding the wrongfulness of an act not in conformity with an international obligation of that State unless the act:
(a) Is the only way for the State to safeguard an essential interest against a grave and imminent peril; and
(b) Does not seriously impair an essential interest of the State or States towards which the obligation exists, or of the international community as a whole.
2. In any case, necessity may not be invoked by a State as a ground for precluding wrongfulness if:
(a) The international obligation in question excludes the possibility of invoking necessity; or
(b) The State has contributed to the situation of necessity."

IRELAND, The Law Reform Commission, Duress and Necessity, Dublin: The Law Reform Commission, 2006, xv, 124 p. (series; consultation paper;  LRC CP 39-2006); available at http://www.lawreform.ie/Duress%20and%20Necessity%20CP9.pdf (accessed on 29 April 2006);


___________The Law Reform Commission, Report -- Defences in Criminal Law, Dublin: The Law Reform Commission, 2009, xix, 226 p.(series; report; LRC 95-2009), ISSN: 1393-3132; available at http://www.lawreform.ie/publications/rDefencesinCriminalLaw.pdf (accessed on 28 December 2009);


ISRAËL, Nicolas, avec Laurent Gryn, Généalogie du droit moderne: L'état de nécessité,  Paris : Payot, c2006, 190 p. (Collection;  Critique de la politique Payot), ISBN:  222890032X; copie à l'Université d'Ottawa, FTX général, K5087 .N4 I87 2006;


The Italian Penal Code Translated by Edward M. Wise in collaboration with Allen Maitlin.  Introduction by Edward M. Wise, Lttleton (Colorado): Fred B. Rothman and London: Sweet & Maxwell, 1978, xli, 249 p., see articles 54 and 55, (series; American series of foreign penal codes; vol. 23), ISBN: 08377700434;

"Article 54.  State of Necessity.
    Anyone who has committed an act having been compelled to do so by the necessity of saving himself or others from the present danger of serious bodily harm, a danger not voluntarily caused by him, nor otherwise avoidable, shall not be punishable, provided the act is proportionate to the danger.

    This provision shall not apply to one who is under a specific legal duty to expose himself to the danger.

    The provisions of the first paragraph of this Article shall apply even if the state of necessity is caused by the threats of others; but, in that case, the one who compelled the threatened person to commit the act shall be liable for it.

Article 55.  Negligent Excess.
    When, in committing any of the acts designated in Articles 51 [Exercise of a Right or Performance of a Duty], 52 [Lawful Defense], 53 [Lawful Use of Arms] and 54, the limits prescribed by law or by order of the authorities or imposed by necessity are negligently exceeded, the provisions of law relating to crimes of negligence shall apply, if the act is designated by law as a crime or negligence." (p. 18)

------

"Art. 54 - Stato di necessità
     Non è punibile chi ha commesso il fatto per esservi stato costretto dalla necessità di salvare se od altri dal pericolo attuale di un danno grave alla persona, pericolo da lui non volontariamente causato, ne altrimenti evitabile, sempre che il fatto sia proporzionato al pericolo.

    Questa disposizione non si applica a chi ha un particolare dovere giuridico di esporsi al pericolo.

    La disposizione della prima parte di questo articolo si applica anche se lo stato di necessità è determinato dall'altrui minaccia; ma, in tal caso, del fatto commesso dalla persona minacciata risponde chi l'ha costretta a commetterlo.

Art. 55 - Eccesso colposo

    Quando, nel commettere alcuno dei fatti preveduti dagli articoli 51 [Esercizio di un diritto o adempimentodi un dovere], 52 [Difesa legittima], 53 [Uso legittima delle armi] e 54, si eccedono colposamente i limiti stabiliti dalla legge o dall'ordine dell'Autorità ovvero imposti dalla necessità, si applicano le disposizioni concernenti i delitti colposi, se il fatto è preveduto dalla legge come delitto colposo." (http://www.usl4.toscana.it/dp/isll/lex/cp_l1.htm#L1t3c1, accessed on 3 August 2006)

------

"ART. 54 -- État de nécessité. --
    N'est pas punissable celui qui a commis le fait parce qu'il a été contraint par la nécessité de se préserver ou de préserver autrui du danger actuel d'un grave dommage pour la personne, danger qu'il n'a pas fait naître volontairement, et qui ne pouvait être évité autrement, pourvu que le fait soit proportionné au danger.

    Cette disposition ne s'applique pas à celui qui a un devoir juridique particulier de s'exposer au danger.

    La disposition du premier alinéa du présent article s'applique même si l'état de nécessité a pour cause la menace d'autrui.  Mais, en ce cas, celui qui l'a contrainte à commettre le fait, répond du fait commis par la personne menacée.

ART. 55. -- Excès non intentionnel (colposo). --
    Lorsque, en commettant l'un des faits prévus par les articles 51 [Exercise d'un droit ou accomplisement d'un devoir], 52 [Légitime défense], 53 [Usage légitime des armes] et 54, on dépasse sans intention les limites établies par la loi, ou par l'ordre de l'Autorité, ou imposées par la nécessité, on applique les dispositions concernant les délits non intentionnels, si le fait est prévu par la loi comme délit non intentionnel." (Code pénal italien  de 1930, traduction de P. de Casabianca avec mise à jour par V. de Toma,  avec une notice spéciale sur ce code par Marc Ancel avec la collaboration de Yvonne Marx, dans Les Codes pénaux européens, Tome II, Paris: Centre français de droit comparé, 1956, pp. 871-1014, à la p. 882 (Nouvelle Collection du Comité de législation étrangère et de droit international));

   

JEANDIDIER, Wilfrid, Droit pénal général, 2 ième édition Paris: Montchrestien, 1991,  594 p., voir les pp. 294-299 sur l'état de nécessité (Collection Domat / Droit Privé), ISBN: 2707604763.

 

KADISH, Sanford H., 1921-,  and Stephen J. Schulhofer, Criminal Law and Its Processes - Cases and Materials, 5th ed., Boston: Little, Brown, 1989, xlv, 1280 p., see "3. Choice of the Lesser Evil - The Residual Principle of Justification",  at pp. 903-922 and "Note on the Differences Between Necessity and Duress" at pp. 934-936, ISBN: 0316478164; research note: there is now a 6th ed. which I have not consulted: Boston : Little, Brown, 1995, xlvii, 1232 p., ISBN: 0316478180;
 

KANT, Immanuel, 1724-1804, Métaphysique des moeurs - Première partie - Doctrine du droit, Paris : Librairie philosophique J. Vrin, 1988, 279 p., voir les pp. 109-110, «Le droit de nécessité (Ius necessitatis)», ISBN: 271160425X;
 

___________The Metaphysical Elements of Justice - Part I of The Metaphysics of Morals, translated, with an Introduction, by John Ladd, New York: Macmillan Publishing, 1965 (11th printing in 1987), xxxvi, 150 p., see pp. 41-42 on "The Right of Necessity", ISBN: 0023671009;
 

___________ On the old saw: that may be right in theory but it won't work in practice. Translated by E. B. Ashton. Introd. by George Miller, Philadelphia: University of  Pennsylvania Press,  [1974], 81 p., see pp. 68-69; ISBN: 0812276779 and 0812210581 (paper); translation of: Über den Gemeinspruch: Das mag in der Theorie richtig sein, taugt aber nicht fur die Praxis, 1793;
 

___________The Philosophy of Law: An Exposition of the Fondamental Principles of Jurisprudence as The Science of Right, Translated from the German by W. Hastie, B.D., Edinburgh: T.T. Clark, 1887, 265 p., see pp. 52-53 on "The Right of Necessity"; vailable at http://socserv.mcmaster.ca/econ/ugcm/3ll3/kant/sciencelaw.pdf  (accessed on 5 October 2007);
 

KATZ, Leo, Bad Acts and Guilty Minds: Conundrums of the Criminal Law, Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, xii, 343 p., see chapter 1 "Necessity, the Mother of Invention", pp. 8-81 with notes at pp. 309-317, ISBN: 0226425916 and 022642592 (pbk.);
 

KILLIAS, Martin en collaboration avec Bernard A. Dénéréaz, Précis de droit pénal général, Berne: Staempfli, 1998, xlv, 300 p., voir en particulier les pp. 97-107 (collection; Précis de droit Staempfli),  ISBN:  3727209895;
 

KNOOPS, Geert-Jan G. J., Defenses in contemporary international criminal law, Ardsley, N.Y. : Transnational Pub., c2001, xxxviii, 297 p. (series; International and comparative criminal law series); copy at the University of Alberta (interlibrary loan, K 5455, K59 2001, January 2002);
 

KREMNITZER, Mordechai and Re'em Segev, "The legality of interrogational torture: a question of proper authorization or a substantive moral issue?", (Fall 2000) 34(4) Israel Law Review 509-559;
 

LaFAVE, Wayne R. and Austin W. Scott, Substantive Criminal Law, vol. 1, Sections 1.1 to 5.11, St. Paul (Minn.): West, 1986, see "§ 5.4 Necessity",  pp. 627-640, ISBN: 0314984038;
 

LAINGUI, André et Arlette Lebigre, Histoire du droit pénal, vol. 1, Le droit pénal, Paris: Cujas, [1978], xi, 223 p., voir "L'état de nécessité" aux pp. 107-110;
 

LAINGUI, André, Histoire du droit pénal, 2e édtion mise à jour, Paris: Presses universitaires de France, 1993, 127 p., voir "L'état de nécessité" aux pp. 102-103 (Collection; Que sais-je?; numéro 690), ISBN: 2130450091;
 

___________La responsabilité pénale dans l'ancien droit (XVIe - XVIIIe siècle), Paris :  Librairie générale de droit et de jurisprudence, 1970, xii, 366 p., (Collection; Bibliothèque d'histoire du droit et droit romain; tome XVII), voir le chapitre III, «L'état de nécessité», aux pp. 331-343;
 

LALLEMENT, Paul, L'état de nécessité en matière civile, Paris : Presses universitaires de Paris, 1922, viii, 225 p., (thèse Paris); sur le droit civil mais d'intérêt pour le sujet; texte non consulté mais cité par la doctrine; selon The National Union Catalog Pre-1956 Imprints, Londres : Mansell, 1974, vol. 312, p. 370, une copie se trouverait à l'University of Michigan, Ann Arbor;
 

LALOU, Henri, Du délit commis en état de nécessité, Paris: Secrétariat de l'Institut catholique, s. d. [1904], 25 p.; titre noté dans mes recherches mais document non consulté (source http://www.criminocorpus.cnrs.fr/article.php3?id_article=30, site visité le 25 août 2007);

LARGUIER, Jean,  Droit pénal général, 16e édition, Paris: Éditions Dalloz, 1997, 249 p. (Collection; Mémentos Dalloz), voir "L'état de nécessité" aux pp. 54-57;
 

LÉAUTÉ, Jacques, "Le rôle de la faute antérieure dans le fondement de la responsabilité pénale", (1981) Recueil Dalloz Sirey chr. 41, aux pp. 295-298; copie à la Bibliothèque de la Cour suprême du Canada;
 

LE FOYER, Jean, 1902-, Exposé du droit pénal normand au XIIIe siècle, Paris, Sirey, 1931, 314 p.;

"1 De même les textes du Droit canonique concluaient, rappelons-le, à une excuse au vol si celui-ci est commis non par intention mauvaise mais par nécessité, comme lorsqu'étant pressé par une faim extrême, on vole du pain ou toute autre chose comestible, cf. Decret, can. 26. D. V, de cons.; C. 3, X, V, 5; C. 4, X, III, 8.  L'influence s'en retrouve dans les textes comme le Traité de Britton, par exemple et comme dans ceux de l'ancien Droit français, cf. DAMHOUDÈRE, Practica, ch. CX, 13 et de l'ancien Droit allemand, cf. Peinliche Halsgerichtsordnung Karls V ou Caroline, art. 166." (note 1, à la p. 133; pour l'article 166 de La Caroline, voir, infra, Vogel)


LEGEAIS, Raymond, Les grands systèmes de droit contemporain: une approche comparative, Paris : Litec : Éd. Juris Classeur, 2004, xiii, 457 p., et voir "L'état de nécessité" aux pp. 332-334, SBN:  2711004368; copie à l'Université d'Ottawa, FTX General, K559 .L43 2004;

LEPAGE, P., Éléments de la science du droit; à l'usage de toutes les nations et de toutes les classes de citoyens, ou, Sources des devoirs de l'homme social, tant dans le for intérieur que dans le for extérieur..., Paris, G.C. Hunert, 1819, 2 volumes, voir "Du mal fait à autrui par nécessité", pp. 135-142, vol. 1; copie à l'Université St-Paul, Ottawa, K232 F7L46E5 1819 1;


LETANNEUX, Morgane, 1982-, L'évolution de l'état de nécessité en droit pénal,  mémoire de master, recherche 2e année,  Droit pénal, Lille 2, Université du droit et de la santé (Lille), 2005, 123 feuilles; directeur de thèse: Alain Prothais;
 

LOGOZ, Paul, Commentaire du Code pénal suisse, Partie Générale, 2e éd. mise à jour avec la collaboration d'Yves Sandoz, Neuchâtel : Delachaux & Niestlé, 1976, 569 p., voir les pp. 174-183 sur l'art. 34 du Code pénal suisse sur l'état de nécessité, ISBN: 2603000578;
 

LUQUET, Louis, Du délit nécessaire,  Paris: V. Giard et E. Brière, 1902, 156 p.; thèse de doctorat, droit, Faculté de droit, Université de Paris, thèse  non consultée;
 

MACAULAY, Lord T.B. [Thomas Babington] et al., "Notes [on the Indian Penal Code by the Indian Law Commissioners]", in Miscellaneous Works of Lord Macaulay edited by his sister Lady Trevelyan, in Five Volumes, vol. IV, New York: Harper, 1880, 669 p., pp. 177-327, see "Note (B) - On The Chapter of General Exceptions", at pp. 206-211;
 

MARCHAND, Georges-Félix, De l'état de nécessité en droit pénal,  Paris: A. Marchand, 1902, 216 p., thèse, Université de Paris, Faculté de droit; texte non consulté, information du catalogue informatisé de la Bibliothèque nationale de France; selon The National Union Catalog Pre-1956 Imprints, Londres : Mansell,  vol. 360, p. 684, une copie se trouverait à l'University Harvard Law School Library et à New York Public Library;
 

MARCHAND, Maurice (magistrat), Cour d'appel de Nancy. Audience solennelle de rentrée du 16 octobre 1900.   Le Vol en cas d'extrême misère et l'état de nécessité, discours prononcé par M. Marchand, Nancy : impr. de Vagner, 1900, 62 p.; titre noté dans ma recherche; aucune bibliothèque ne semble avoir ce livre au Canada; livre non consulté; copy at Harvard University;
 

McCALL SMITH, RAA and David Sheldon, Scots Criminal Law, 2nd ed., Edinburg: Butterworths, 1997, xxxiii, 346 p., see "Necessity and Coercion" at pp. 150-153, ISBN: 0406891192;
 

McCOY, Alan Edward., Force and Fear in Relation to Delictual Imputability and Penal Responsibility: An Historical Synopsis and Commentary, Washington: The Catholic University  of America Press, 1944, xii, 160 p. (series; The Catholic University of America, Shool of Canon law, Canon Law  Studies No. 200);
 

MERLE, Roger, 1922-, et  André Vitu, Traité de droit criminel - Tome I, 7e éd., Paris : Éditions Cujas,  1997, 1068 p., l'état de nécessité aux pp. 587-594;
 

MILHIZER, Eugene, "Justification and excuse: what they were, what they are, and what they ought to be", (Summer 2004) 78 St. John's Law Review 725-895;
 

MOESSINGER, Pierre, La psychologie morale, Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1989, 127 p. (Collection; Que sais-je; 2465),  ISBN: 2130423876; note de recherche traite en partie de Lawrence Kohlberg et de sa fable où "un homme qui, s'il veut sauver sa femme malade, doit voler un médicament" (voir les pp. 42-60);
 

MORIAUD, Paul, De la justification du délit par l'état de nécessité, Genève : R. Burkhardt et Paris : L. Larose & Forcel, 1889, 323 p.; note de recherche : pour un compte-rendu critique, voir Garçon, infra; j'ai mis cet excellent livre de monsieur Moriaud  en format pdf sur l'internet, voir à ma page  http://www.lareau-law.ca/DigitalLibraryTwo.html; aussi disponible sous le titre Du délit nécessaire et de l'état de nécessité à http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k5788687c.r=.langEN (vérifié le 30 avril 2010); ;
 

MÜLLER, Wolfgang, P., 1960-, Huguccio: the Life, Works, and Thought of a Twelft-Century Jurist, Washington (D.C.): Catholic University of America Press, c1994, ix, 220 p., on necessity, see pp. 143-144 (series; Studies in medieval and early modern canon law; vol. 3), ISBN: 0813207878;
 

MUSLEH-UD-DIN (Muslehuddin), Mohammad, Islamic jurispudence and the rule of necessity and need, Islamabad (Pakistan): Islamic Research Institute, 1975, vi, 69, [2] p.; Research Note: Book was not consulted; information from the US Library of Congress catalogue;
 

NATIONAL COMMISSION ON REFORM OF FEDERAL CRIMINAL LAWS, Final Report of the National Commission on Reform of Federal Criminal Laws - A Proposed New Federal Criminal Code (Title 18, United States Code), Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1971, xxv, 364 p., see pp. 43 and 53-54; the proposed code is available on the internet at the  Buffalo Criminal Law Center, at "Materials on Federal Criminal Code Reform" which includes also: "Selected Bibliography on Federal Criminal Code Reform", "Special Collection on Federal Criminal Code Reform" and "Conferences on Criminal Code Reform";
 

NEW ZEALAND, Crimes Bill 1989, introduced in May 1989, see pp. vii, clause 30 and p. 18, clause 30 on necessity;
 

__________Crimes Consultative Committee, Crimes Bill 1989 - Report of the Crimes Consultative Committee: Presented to the Minister of Justice, [Wellington], 1991, 123 p., ISBN: 0477076165, see pp. 20 on clause 30 "Necessity" and the "Crimes Bill - Proposed Amendments", "30. Necessity" at 95-96 (Chairman: Mr. Justice Casey);
 

__________Law Commission, Battered defendants : victims of domestic violence who offend : a discusion paper, Wellington, N.Z. : The Commission, 2000, vii, 75 p., see Chapter 11, "Necessity" at pp. 57-65  (series; Preliminary paper; number 41), ISBN: 1877187542 (pbk.);

___________New Zealand Law Commission, Some Criminal Defences with Particular Reference to Battered Defendants, 2001, xiii, 102 p. (series; report; ISSN: 0113-2334; number 73), ISBN: 1877187739; available at http://www.lawcom.govt.nz/UploadFiles/Publications/Publication_80_194_R73.pdf  (accessed on 17 March 2008);  
 

NIGERIA, Zamfara State of Nigerai, Shari'ah Penal Code Law, January, 2000,  see section 80:

"80. Act of necessity
It shall not be an offence if an act is done by a person who is compelled by necessity to protect his person, property or honour or person, property or honour of another from imminent grave danger which he has not wilfully caused or wilfully exposed himself or other persons to and which he or that other person is not capable of avoiding."


NORRIE, Alan W. (Alan William), 1953-,  Crime, Reason and History - A Critical Introduction to Criminal Law, London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, xx, 279 p., 1993, see on necessity, at pp. 154-163 and 169-171, (series; Law in context), ISBN: 0297821504;
 

___________Law, Ideology and Punishment: Retrieval Critique of the Liberal Ideal of Criminal Justice, Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, c. 1991, xix, 223 p., see on necessity, pp. 25-28, 55-59, 71-73  and the index (series; Law and Philosophy Library, vol. 12), ISBN: 0792310136;
 

Les nouveaux codes pénaux de langue allemande: Autriche (1974), République démocratique allemande (1968) et République fédérale d'Allemagne (1975), Paris: La  Documentation française avec le concours du Centre français de droit comparé, 1981, 565 p., (Collection des codes pénaux européens du Comité de législation étrangère et de droit international du Ministère de la Justice, sous la direction de Marc Ancel avec la collaboration de Yvonne Marx, tome 5); voir l'art. 10, «Excuse créée par l'état de nécessité» du Code pénal autrichien à la p. 16 et les art. 34 et 35, du Code pénal allemand, «État de nécessité en tant que fait justificatif» et «État de nécessité en tant que cause d'excuse», aux pp. 338-339,  ISBN: 2110006579;

"ARTICLE 34 [Code pénal allemand]
Etat de nécessité en tant que fait justificatif
N'agit pas de façon illicite celui qui, en présence d'un danger actuel pour la vie, la personne, la liberté, l'honneur, la propriété ou tout autre droit, danger qui ne peut être écarté par aucun autre moyen, commet une infraction en vue de détourner le danger de lui-même ou d'autrui.  Mais, dans l'appréciation des intérêts en conflit, à savoir celle des biens concernés et le degré de danger qui les menace, l'intérêt protégé doit l'emporter de façon substantielle sur l'intérêt sacrifié.  La présente disposition n'est cependant applicable que dans la mesure où l'acte est un moyen propre à éviter le danger.

ARTICLE 35
Etat de nécessité en tant que cause d'excuse
(1) Agit sans culpabilité celui qui, en présence d'un danger pour la vie, la personne ou la liberté, danger qui ne peut être évité par aucun autre moyen, commet un acte illicite en vue de détourner le danger de lui-même, d'un parent ou d'un autre de ses proches.  La présente distinction n'est pas applicable s'il pouvait, selon les circonstances, être exigé de l'auteur qu'il accepte le danger notamment parce qu'il avait lui-même provoqué le danger ou parce qu'il se trouvait dans une situation juridique particulière; toutefois, la peine peut être atténuée en application de l'article 49, alinéa 1, lorsque l'auteur, eu égard à des rapports juridiques particuliers, ne devait pas accepter le danger.

(2) Si, lors de la commission de l'acte, l'auteur suppose, par erreur, l'existence de circonstances qui l'auraient excusé, en application de l'alinéa 1, il n'est puni que s'il ne pouvait pas éviter cette erreur.  La peine doit être atténuée conformément à l'article 49, alinéa 1." (pp. 338-339)

------------

Code pénal autrichien
"Excuse créée par l'état de nécessité
ARTICLE 10. -- (1) Quiconque commet un acte passible d'une peine pour écarter de lui-même ou d'un tiers un dommage grave le menaçant directement bénéficie d'une excuse, si la gravité du dommage dont l'acte en cause fait peser la menace n'est pas hors de proportion avec celle du dommage que ledit acte vise à écarter, et si l'on ne pouvait s'attendre, dans la situation de l'auteur, à un comportement différent de la part d'un homme attaché aux valeurs placées sous la protection du droit.

(2)  L'auteur ne bénéficie pas d'une excuse, s'il s'est exposé au danger délibérément, en l'absence d'un motif reconnu par le droit en vigueur.  L'auteur doit être puni pour avoir agi par négligence, si c'est par une erreur reposant sur sa négligence qu'il a supposé réunies les conditions qui auraient fait bénéficier son acte d'une excuse, et si une peine est prévue pour l'acte commis par négligence." (p. 16)
 

NOURSE, V.F., "Reconceptualizing Criminal Law Defenses", (2003) 151(5) University of Pennsylvania Law Review 1691-1746, see "Necessity" at pp. 1710-1715;
 

O'CONNOR, D. (Desmond) O. and P.A. Fairall, Criminal Defences, 3rd ed., Sydney: Butterworths, 1996, xxxii, 328 p., see "Chapter 6 Necessity", pp. 101-116, ISBN: 0409308463;
 

PACKER, Herbert L., The Limits of the Criminal Sanction, Stanford (California): Stanford University Press, 1968, xi, 385 p., see "Necessity", pp. 113-118, ISBN: 08047065565 (cloth) and 0804708991 (paper);
 

PALLARD, Roger,  L'exception de nécessité en droit civil,  Préface de René Savatier,  Paris : Librairie générale de droit et de jurisprudence, 1949, 380 p.; note de recherche : pas sur le droit pénal mais d'intérêt pour le sujet; une copie de ce livre se trouve à Librairie Fauteux de l'Université d'Ottawa et la librarie de la Cour suprême du Canada;
 

The Penal Code of Finland and Related Laws Translated by Matti Joustsen with an Introduction by Inkeri Anttila, Littleton (Colorado): Fred B. Rothman and in London: Sweet & Maxwell, 1987, xvi, 179 p., see Chapter 3 "On Grounds Removing or Diminishing the Punishability of An Act",  § 10 at p. 30 (The American Series of Foreign Codes, vol. 27), ISBN: 0837700477;
 

The Penal Code of the Federal Republic of Germany, Translated  by Joseph J. Darby With an Introduction by Hans-Heinrich Jescheck, Littleton (Colorado):  F.B. Rothman and London: Sweet & Maxwell, 1987, xxvi, 257 p., (series; The American Series of Foreign Penal Codes; vol. 28), ISBN: 0837700485, see sections 34 and 35 of the Code: "Necessity as justification" and "Necessity as excuse"; Research Note/Note de recherche: available on the internet /disponible sur l'internet  Buffalo Criminal Law Center (and click after on "Criminal Law Resources on the Internet"); important contribution;

"§ 34.  Necessity as justification

    Whoever commits an act in order to avert an imminent and otherwise unavoidable danger to the life, limb, liberty, honor, property or other legal interest of himself or of another does not act unlawfully if, taking into consideration all the conflicting interests, in particular the legal ones, and the degree of danger involved, the interest protected by him significantly outweighs the interest which he harms.  This rule applies only if the act is an appropriate means to avert the danger.
 

§ 35.  Necessity as excuse

    (1) Whoever commits an unlawful act in order to avert an imminent and otherwise unavoidable danger to his own life, limb, or liberty, or to that of a relative or person close to him, acts without guilt.  This rule does not apply if under the prevailing circumstances the perpetrator could be expected to have assumed the risk, especially because he was himself the cause of the danger or because he found himself in a special legal relationship.  If however, the perpetrator did not have to assume the risk with regard to a special legal relationship, the punishment may be reduced in accordance with the provisiobns of § 49(1).

    (2) If, in committing the act, the perpetrator assumes the existence of circumstances which under subparagraph (1) would excuse his conduct, he shall be punished only if he could have avoided the error.  The punishment shall be reduced in accordance with the provisions of § 49(1)." (pp. 59-60)

PERKINS, Rollin M., 1889-,  and Ronald N. Boyce, Criminal Law, 3rd ed., Mineola (New York): The Foundation Press, 1982, xxiii, 1269 p., see "H. Necessity (Duress of Circumstances), pp. 1065-1072, (series; University Textbook Series), ISBN: 0882770675;


PORTUGAL, Penal Code -- General Part in English, available at http://www.verbojuridico.net/download/portuguesepenalcode.pdf  (accessed on 30 September 2007);

"Article 34
Necessity right
An act is not unlawful when committed as an appropriate means to avert a present danger that threatens legally protected interests of the agent or of a third person, if the following requisites are verified:

a) The danger situation must not have been voluntarily created by the agent, save in case of protecting the third person’s interest;

b) There is a sensible superiority of the interest to be safeguarded relatively to the sacrificed interest; and

c) It is reasonable to impose on the victim the sacrifice of his interest, considering the nature or value of the threatened interest.

Article 35
Exculpatory necessity state

1- Whoever commits an unlawful act appropriate to avert a present danger, not differently removable, that threatens life, physical integrity, honour or freedom of the agent or of a third person, Acts without guilt when it is not reasonable to demand, according to the circumstances of the case, a different behaviour.

2- If the danger threatens legal interests other than those referred to in the previous number, and if the rest of the preconditions there mentioned are verified, punishment may be especially mitigated or, exceptionally, the agent exempted of punishment."


POSNER, Eric A. and Adrian Vermeule, "Should Coercive Interrogation Be Legal?", (February 2006) 104(4) Michigan Law Review  671-707; available at http://www.michiganlawreview.org/archive/104/4/Posner_Vermeule.pdf (accessed on 11 March 2007);
 

PRADEL, Jean, Droit pénal comparé, Paris : Dalloz, 1995, viii, 733 p., voir l'état de nécessité aux pp. 287-288  (Collection; Précis Dalloz - Droit Pivé);
 

PRINS, Adolphe, Science et Droit Positif, Bruxelles : Bruylant-Christophe et à Paris : Librarie A. Marescq, Ainé, 1899, xliv, 589 p., voir la contrainte, aux pp. 254 à 258 et l'état de nécessité aux pp. 261-265;
 

PUFENDORF, Samuel, Les Devoirs de l'homme et du citoyen: tels qu'ils lui sont prescrits par la loi naturelle, t. 1, traduction de De officio hominis et civis juxta legem naturalem. par Jean Barbeyrac, 6e éd., Caen :  Centre de philosophie politique et juridique, Université de Caen, 1984 (réimpression de l'édition : Londres : Nourse, 1741), chap. v, "Des Devoirs de l'Homme par rapport à lui-mesme", pp. 130-192 (Collection; Bibliothèque de philosophie politique et juridique);
 

__________De Jure Naturae et Gentum Libri Octo [On the Law of Nature and Nations]  vol. 2, The Translation of the edition of 1688 by C.H. Oldfather and W.A. Oldfather, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1934, see "On the Right and Privilege of Necessity",  Book 2,  chap. 6,   pp. 295-309;
 

RAMIREZ, Juan Bustos and  Manuel Valenzuela Bejas, Le système pénal des pays d'Amérique latine (avec référence au Code pénal type latino-américain),  Traduit de l'espagnol par Jacqueline Bernat De Celis, Paris: Éditions A. Pedone, 1983, 159 p., voir les pp. 73-86 et 122-124, ISBN: 2233001184; research note: for an English version of the Standard Penal Code for Latin America, see Dahl, infra; contribution importante;

    "Avant d'entrer dans l'analyse de ce que la doctrine entend par état de nécessité, il est indispensable de faire allusion à un sujet déjà mentionné et qui est central, celui de savoir si l'état de nécessité est un fait justificatif ou une excuse, ou les deux à la fois.  C'est ce que l'on connaît depuis très longtemps sous le nom de théories unificatrices -- de l'antijuridicité ou de la culpabilité -- et de théorie de la différenciation -- il y a un état de nécessité justificatif et un autre qui est cause de non-culpabilité.

      [...]

    Quand un bien est plus affecté qu'un autre, on comprend que le droit soit disposé à laisser ledit comportement impuni, car dans tous les cas il exerce sa fonction de protection et il assure en outre le développemnt social, dans la mesure où ce qui est fondamental n'est pas affecté et où l'on se trouve dans le cadre des risques qu'impliquent la vie sociale et le progrès.  Mais quand les biens sont également affectés, on ne trouverait pas de fondement -- sauf le simple arbitraire -- pour décider en faveur de l'un plutôt que l'autre.  Seul le critère de protection peut justifier un comportement, et c'est seulement dans ce cadre que l'on peut utiliser le critère supplétoire de rationalité, l'arbitraire ne pouvant être rationnel.  Ce serait donc une contradiction que de dire que pour protéger une vie on en élimine une autre.  C'est la même contradiction dans laquelle on tombe avec la peine de mort.  Quand les maux sont égaux, on ne se trouve donc pas devant un problème d'antijuridicité, mais devant un problème de culpabilité." (pp. 73 et 75)


RASSAT, Michèle-Laure, Droit pénal, Paris : Presses Universitaires de France, 1987, 683 p., ISBN: 2130405792, voir les pp. 407-412; Research Note: there is now a 2nd ed. published in 1999;
 

RIPSTEIN, Arthur, Equality, Responsibility, and the Law, Cambridge and in New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999,  xii, 307 p., see "Justification and Excuses" at pp. 163-171, "Unknown Justifications" at pp. 214-217; necessity at pp. 117-123 and 164-167 (Series; Cambridge studies in philosophy and law),  ISBN: 0521584523;
 

___________Force and freedom: Kant's legal and political philosophy, Cambridge (Mass.): Harvard University Press, 2009, xiii, 399 p., ISBN: 0674035062, 9780674035065; limited preview is available at http://books.google.com/books?id=Nz4zl2lue3AC&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:Force+intitle:and+intitle:freedom+intitle:Kant%27s+intitle:legal+intitle:and+intitle:political+intitle:philosophy&lr=&as_drrb_is=q&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=&as_brr=0&ei=WMziSsODFoq6yQSZ89j3Cw#v=onepage&q=&f=false (accessed on 24 October 2009);
 

ROBERTSON, J. Bruce, Adams on Criminal Law - 2nd Student Edition, Wellington (New Zealand): Brookers, 1998, xcvii, 1034 p., see on necessity,  pp. 105-109, ISBN: 0864722826; research note: excellent textbook on the criminal law of New Zealand;
 

ROBINSON, Paul H., 1948-, Criminal Law Defences, vol. 2, St. Paul (Minnesota): West, 1984,  see in particular vol. 1 at pp. 108-109 and vol. 2 at pp. 45-68, ISBN: 0314815139 (set);
 

Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court,17 July 1998, in force 1 July 2002, see Part III, General Principles of Criminal Law, available at http://www.un.org/law/icc/ (accessed on 4 December 2002);
 

___________"Draft Report of the International Meeting from 19 to 30 January 1998 in Zutphen, the Netherlands" in M. Cherfif Bassiouni, 1937-, compiled by, The Statute of the International Criminal Court : a documentary history, Ardsley, N.Y. : Transnational Publishers, c1998, xxii, 793 pp., at pp. 221-311, (document number: A/AC.249/1998/L.13, 1998), ISBN:1571050957; copy at the Library of Parliament, KZ6310 S72 (library Br.B.); available at  http://www.npwj.org/iccrome/cdrom/ (accessed on 15 December 2002);
 

___________"Report of the Preparatory Committee on the Establishment of an International Criminal Court, vol. 1, (Proceedings of the Preparatory Committee during March-April and August 1996)", in M. Cherfif Bassiouni, 1937-, compiled by, The Statute of the International Criminal Court : a documentary history, Ardsley, N.Y. : Transnational Publishers, c1998, xxii, 793 pp., at pp. 385-439, (document number: G.A., 51 st Sess., Supp. No. 22, A/51/22, 1996), ISBN:1571050957; copy at the Library of Parliament, KZ6310 S72 (library Br.B.); available at  http://www.npwj.org/iccrome/cdrom/ (accessed on 15 December 2002);
 

___________"Report of the Preparatory Committee on the Establishment of an International Criminal Court, vol. 2, (Compilation of Proposals)", in M. Cherfif Bassiouni, 1937-, compiled by, The Statute of the International Criminal Court : a documentary history, Ardsley, N.Y. : Transnational Publishers, c1998, xxii, 793 pp., at pp. 441-616 (document number: G.A., 51 st Sess., Supp. No. 22, A/51/22, 1996), ISBN:1571050957; copy at the Library of Parliament, KZ6310 S72 (library Br.B.); available at  http://www.npwj.org/iccrome/cdrom/ (accessed on 15 December 2002);
ROUSSIER-THÉAUX, J., Compte-rendu du livre de Stephan Kutner :  Kanonistische schuldlehre von Gratian bis auf die Dekretalen Gregors IX, systematisch auf grund der handschriftlichen quellen dargestellt, (1937) 16 Revue historique de droit français et étranger 701-708; texte en français; on traite de la nécessité aux pp. 705-708;
 

ROUX, J.-A., Cours de droit criminel français, deuxième édition, Tome I - Droit pénal, Paris: Recueil Sirey, 1927, vi, 540 p., sur l'état de nécessité , voir les pp. 195-202;
 

SAINTE BIBLE, LA, traduite en français sous la direction de l'école biblique de Jérusalem, Paris: Éditions du Cerf, 1955,

Les épis arrachés.

12.  En ce temps-là, Jésus vint à passer, un jour de sabbat, à travers les moissons.  Ses disciples, ayant faim, se mirent à arracher des épis et à les manger.  Ce que voyant, les Pharisiens lui dirent: "Voilà que tes disciples font ce qu'il n'est pas permis de faire pendant le sabbat!  Mais il leur dit: "N'avez-vous pas lu ce que fit David lorsqu'il eut faim, lui et ses compagnons?  Comment il entra dans la maison de Dieu et comment ils mangèrent des pains de proposition, qu'il ne lui était pas permis de manger, ni à ses compagnons, mais aux prêtres seuls?  Ou encore n'avez-vous pas lu dans la Loi que, le jour du sabbat, les prêtres dans le Temple violent le sabbat sans être en faute?  Or, je vous le dis, il y a ici plus grand que le Temple.  Et si vous aviez compris le sens de cette parole: C'est la miséricorde que je désire, et non le sacrifice, vous n'auriez pas condamné des gens qui sont sans faute.  Ainsi le Fils de l'homme est maître du sabbat." (L'Évangile selon Saint Matthieu, 12:3-4, à la p. 1304)

SERMET,  Ernest, L'état de necessité en matière criminelle, Paris : A. Rousseau, 1903,  xix, 363, [1] p., Note de recherche: livre non consulté;  information du catalogue informatisé Hollis de l'Université Harvard; livre fréquemment cité par la doctrine française;
 

SÈVE, René, Leibniz et l'école moderne du droit naturel, Paris : Presses universitaires de France, c1989, 236 p. (Collection; Questions, 0752-0514),  ISBN:  2130417337; copie à l'Université d'Ottawa, B 2599 .E85 S484 1989;

"Mais c'est surtout sur le droit de nécessité en général que Pufendorf s'abandonne à un calcul quasi utilitaire aux dépens du respect du précepte prohibant le meurtre et le suicide: 'Que faut-il prononcer de ces exemples (d'anthropophagie) où les uns sont étranglés contre leur gré ou tirés au sort selon une procédure acceptée par tous: puisque d'un côté la loi sur l'homicide, de l'autre l'atrocité de la faim (le ventre étant dépourvu d'oreilles) s'affrontent, alors que sans ce moyen très affligeant, tous sont destinés à périr.'  C'est pour cette raison que l'action est légitime, le consentement de la victime n'apparaissant pas comme une condition nécessaire dans l'exemple voisin où un individu tiré au sort, sur un esquif surchargé, refuse de se sacrifier pour le salut commun, ouvrant contre lui le droit de le précipiter dans les flots.  À partir de ces exemples repris de la tradition, se dégage un net abandon de l'interprétation absolutiste de la prohibition de l'homicide tant il semble que pour Pufendorf 'peu de choses semblent honteuses pour éviter la mort', dans la mesure où l'on n'est pas tenu d'aimer son prochain plus que soi-même." (pp. 170-171; notes omises)


SILVING, Helen, Constituent Elements of Crime, Springfield (Illinois): Charles C. Thomas, 1967, xxiv, 458 p.; see "Necessity" at pp. 396-401;
 

___________Criminal Justice, Buffalo: Hein and Rio Piedras (Puerto Rico): University of Puerto Rico, 1971, 2 volumes; see vol. 2, pp. 562-568 for, according to index, "Necessity, State of, Anglo-American Law" and pp. 599-615 for, according to index, "Necessity, State of Comparative Law" [deals with German law]; Note: p. 599 was amended by insertion in Paul K. Ryu and Helen Silving, Fall 1976 Supplement to Criminal Justice by Helen Silvin, [Buffalo]: Hein, 1977, p. 122;
 

SIMPSON, A.W.B. (Alfred William Brian), Cannibalism and the Common law : The Story of the Tragic Last Voyage of the Mignonette and the Strange Legal Proceedings to Which It Gave Rise, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984,  xiv, 353 p., ISBN: 0226759423;
 

SMITH, John, Criminal Law by Sir John Smith and the late Brian Hogan, 8th ed., London: Butterworths, 1996, lxxxvi, 806 p., see "necessity" at pp. 251-259, ISBN: 0406081875;
 

___________Justification and Excuse in the Criminal Law, London:  Stevens, 1989, xii, 133 p. (series; vol. 40 Hamlyn Lectures), see pp. 14-19, 50, 60-61, 65, 73, 79 and 82 dealing with necessity, ISBN: 0420478108 and 0420478205  (pbk);
 

SMITH,   K. J. M. (Keith John Michael), Lawyers, legislators, and theorists : developments in English criminal jurisprudence 1800-1957, Oxford: Clarendon Press; New York: Oxford University Press, 1998, xxvi, 394 p., (series; Oxford monographs on criminal law and criminal justice), ISBN: 0198257236; Contents: Table of Cases,  xvii-xxvi; Ch. 1, Introductory Observations: Objectives and Limitations, 1-6; Pt. I: 1800-1832, p. 7; Ch. 2, Legal Theory and Legal Culture, 9-54; Ch. 3, Developments in Criminal Theory, 55-117;  Pt. II: 1833-1907, p. 119; Ch. 4, Notions of Subjective Criminal Fault, 121-172; Ch. 5, Objective and Constructive Criminal Fault, 173-203; Ch. 6, Excluding the Presumption of Fault: Strict and Vicarious Responsibility - Nineteenth-century Developments, 204-217;  Ch. 7, Moral Agency: The Necessary Characteristics of the Criminal Actor, 218-262; Ch. 8, Attempt: Contracting Consequentialism - Expanding the Notion of Criminal Harm?, 263-275; Pt. III: 1908-1957, p. 277; Ch. 9, Criminal Fault, 279-321; Ch. 10, Moral Agency: The Necessary Characteristics of the Criminal Actor, 322-350; Ch. 11, Attempt: Contracting Consequentialism - Expanding the Notion of Criminal Harm?, 351-360; Ch. 12, Summary Observations and Speculations: General and Particular, 361-378; Bibliography, 379-386;  Index, 387-394;  on duress and necessity, see pp. 102-105, 245-256, 343-350, and 374-376;
 

SNYMAN, C.R.,  Criminal Law, 3rd ed., Durban: Butterworths, 1995,  xii, 577 p.,  ISBN: 0409056251;
 

___________A Draft Criminal Code for South Africa with a Commentary,  Cape Town: Juta, 1995, xl, 133 p., ISBN: 0702133345, see section 2.6 on necessity and the commentary at pp. 53-55; research note: Professor Snyman is a comparative law expert;
 

SOCIÉTÉ FRANÇAISE POUR LE DROIT INTERNATIONAL (40e colloque),  La nécessité en droit international : colloque de Grenoble / 40e colloque de la Société française pour le droit international, Paris: Pédone, 2007, 384 p., ISBN:  9782233005144 (pbk.), 2233005147 (pbk);

- Nécessité n’a pas de loi"? : la nécessité en droit international / Théodore Christakis;
- La nécessité en droit public : prolongements théoriques de données historiques / François Saint-Bonnet;
- La nécessité en droit administratif / Hafida Belrhali;
- La nécessité et le droit pénal / Xavier Pin;
- La nécessité en common law / Sarah Heathcote;
- La nécessité et le droit communautaire / Rostane Mehdi;
- La nécessité et le jus ad bellum / Olivier Corten;
- La nécessité militaire dans le droit des conflits armés : essai de clarification conceptuelle / Robert Kolb;
- La nécessité devant le juge de l’OMC / Hélène Ruiz Fabri;
- L’invocation de l’état de nécessité écologique : les enseignements tirés d’une étude de cas / Pierre-Marie Dupuy;
- La nécessité en droit de la mer / Tullio Treves;
- Peut-on restreindre la démocratie au nom de la nécessité de la défendre? / Emmanuel Decaux, Henri Oberdorff;
- Nécessité de lutte contre le terrorisme et protection internationale des droits de l’homme / Josiane Tercinet;
- Nécessité et légitime défense dans la lutte contre le terrorisme : quelle est la pertinence de l’affaire de la Caroline aujourd’hui? / Michael Wood;
- La nécessité de lutter contre le terrorisme : un argument justifiant le régime d’administration du territoire irakien? / Anne Lagerwall;
- Les assassinats ciblés de terroristes présumés et l’argument de la nécessité / Jean-Christophe Martin;
- L’argument de la nécessité dans les procès ayant suivi la Seconde Guerre mondiale / Karine Bannelier;
- Nécessité militaire, "purification ethnique," état de nécessité / Rafaëlle Maison;
- La justification, devant le tribunal pénal international pour l’ex-Yougoslavie, des pertes civiles ou de la destruction de biens civils par l’argument de nécessité militaire / Mihaela Ailincai;
- L’apport de la jurisprudence internationale en matière de nécessité économique et financière avant 1945 / Orianne Osuna;
- Le Fonds Monétaire International et la nécessité économique et financière : un système auto-réferentiel / Albane Geslin


LA SOCIÉTÉ INTERNATIONALE DE DROIT CANONIQUE ET DE LÉGISLATIONS RELIGIEUSES COMPARÉES avec le concours des Faculté de droit canonique de l'Université Saint-Paul d'Ottawa, Faculté de droit canonique de l'Institut catholique de Paris, Code de droit canonique, Ottawa : Service des Éditions de la Conférence des Évêques catholiques du Canada, 1984, xxxii, 363 p., voir les canons 1323 et 1324 à la p. 229, ISBN: 0889970971;

STALLYBRASS, W.T.S., "A comparison of the general principles of criminal law in England with the 'progretto definitivo di un nuovo codice penale' of Alfredo Rocco", (1932) 14 Journal of Comparative Legislation and International Law 45-61 and (1933) 15 Journal of Comparative Legislation and International Law 232-241; also with the same title in L. Radzinowicz and J.W.C. Turner, eds., The Modern Approach to Criminal Law, London: University of Cambridge, 1945, x, 511 at pp. 390-466, and see "Necessity" and "Salus populi suprema lex" at pp. 431-433 (series; English Studies in Criminal Science, Department of Criminal Science, Faculty of Law, University of Cambridge; volume iv);
 

The Statutory Criminal law of Germany: With Comments: a Translation of the German Criminal Code of 1871 With Amendments, Together with the Most Important Supplementary Penal Statutes and With the Laws Nos. 1 and 11 and Proclamation no. 3 of the Control Council for Germany, Washington, D.C. : War  Deptartment,1946, xx, 276 p., see pp. 45-48, on sections 52-54 of the German Penal Code of 1871 (Series; War Deptartment pamphlet; number 31-122); Notes: At head of title: "Military government information guide"; copy at Nahum Gelber Law Library, McGill University;
 

STEFANI, Gaston, Georges Levasseur et Bernard Bouloc, Droit pénal général, 16e éd., Paris : Dalloz,  1997,  638 p. (Collection; Précis Dalloz - Droit Privé), voir les pp. 313-318;
 

STEPHEN, James Fitzjames, 1829-1894,  A Digest of the Criminal Law (Crimes and Punishments), 4th ed., London: MacMillan, 1887, xl, 441 p., see art. 32 on necessity with illustrations at pp. 24-26; available at http://www.lareau-law.ca/DigitalLibrary.html;

___________A General View of The Criminal Law of England, 2nd ed., London, Macmillan, 1890, ix, 399 p., see "Necessity" at pp. 76-77; reprint in : Littleton, Co. : Fred B. Rothman, 1985, ISBN:  083771138X; copy at the Library of the Supreme Court of Canada, Ottawa, KF9220 ZC2 S732 1985;
 

___________A History of the Criminal Law of England, vol. II, London: MacMillan, 1883, vi, 497 p. (reprint: William S. Hein, ISBN: 0930342771), see "Voluntary Actions by a Person Free From Compulsion", pp. 99-110;
 

STONESTREET, Noémie, 1978-, Contrainte et état de nécessité, Mémoire DEA : Droit pénal et sciences criminelles : Bordeaux 4 : 2002, 50 feuilles; titre noté dans ma recherche mais mémoire non consulté (18 janvier 2003);
 

STROUD, Douglas Aikenhead,  Mens Rea or Imputability Under the Law of England, London: Sweet and Maxwell, 1914, xxiv, 352 p., see pp. 258-264 on coercion;
 

STRUZIK, Ed, "Cannibalism was 'obvious choice': Seven of 25 members of an 1881 polar expedition survived three years without food shipments. Scientists now say they must have eaten their comrades", The Ottawa Citizen, Monday, February 24, 2003, p. A3;
 

SUBER, Peter, The case of the speluncean explorers : nine new opinions, London ; New York : Routledge, 1998, xii, 111 p., ISBN: 0415185459 and     0415185467 (pbk); book not consulted yet; no copy of this book in the Ottawa area libraries (verification on 17 July 2001); see the web site of the author at  http://www.earlham.edu/~peters/writing/csepref.htm#notes (accessed on 17 July 2002);


TANGUAY-RENAUD, François, "Emergencies and the Rule of (Criminal) Law",  Draft (07.10.05) for the Oxford Jurisprudence Discussion Group Not for citation, quotation, or wider circulation; available at  http://www.trinitinture.com/documents/tanguayrenaud.pdf (accessed on 11 February 2006);


TARDE, Gabriel, 1843-1904, Études pénales et sociales, Lyon: A Storck; Paris: G. Masson, 1892, 460; disponible à http://classiques.uqac.ca/classiques/tarde_gabriel/etudes_penales_et_sociales/etudes_penales.html (page visité le 4 février 2006); voir la discussion du livre de monsieur Moriaud sur la nécessité, aux pp. 295-301 (pagination pdf);
 

THOMSON, Judith Jarvis, The realm of rights, Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1990, viii, 383 p., ISBN: 0674749480; copy at Carleton University, 5th flloor,  BJ55.T46;
 

TIERNEY, Brian, The idea of natural rights : studies on natural rights, natural law, and church law, 1150-1625, Atlanta, Ga. : Scholars Press, c1997, xi, 380 p., see Chapter 3, "Rights and Duties.  A quaestio of Henry of Ghent"  (series; Emory University studies in law and religion ; no. 5), ISBN: 0788503553; copy at St Paul University, Ottawa, K445 T54I34 1997;
 

TIRAQUEAU, André, 1488-1558, Le «De Poenis Temperandis» de Tiraqueau (1559).  Introduction, traduction et notes par André Laingui et préface de Jean Imbert, Paris : Economica, 1986, vii, 342 p. (Collection Histoire), notes: Société d'histoire du droit et publié avec le concours du CRNS, ISBN:  2717810447. Note de recherche : voir les causes 32 et 33 sur la nécessité et la pauvreté aux pp. 185-190 et les causes 34, 35 et 36 sur la contrainte aux pp. 191-201;
 

VAN DEN WYNGAERT, Christine, editor, and Guy Stessens and Liesbeth Janssens, assistant editors,  International Criminal Law: A Collection of International and European Instruments, 3rd ed., Leiden/Boston: Martinus Nijhoff, 2005, xviii, 1542 p., see the index, at p. 1535, under "Necessity"  (mistakenly under "Duress" instead of "Defences") where the authors refer to 8 instruments, ISBN: 900414232 and 9004142940 (pbk.); copy at the Library of the Supreme Court of Canada, K5301 A35 I58 2005;
 

VERHAEGEN, Jacques, La protection pénale contre les excès de pouvoir et la résistance légitime à l'autorité, Bruxelles, É. Bruylant, 1969, 502 p. (Collection;Bibliothèque de la Faculté de droit de l'Université catholique de Louvain; 5); copie à la Bibliothèque de l'Université d'Ottawa, JN 2735 .v4 1969, location: FTX;
 

VIDAL, Georges et MAGNOL, Joseph, Cours de droit criminel et de science pénitentiaire, 9e édition refondue et mise au courant de la législation et de la jurisprudence, Tome 1, Droit pénal général - science pénitentiaire, Paris: Rousseau, 1949, xi, 879 p. (t. 1),  sur la l'état de nécessité, voir les pp. 370-383; note de recherche: il s'agit de la 9e édition du livre de Vidal dont Magnol faisait les éditions à partir de la 5e;
 

VOGEL, Franz Adam, Code criminel de l'empereur Charles V, vulgairement appelé La Caroline, contenant les loix qui sont suivies dans les Jurisdictions criminelles de l'Empire, et à l'usage des Conseils de guerre des troupes suisses, Maestricht : J.-E. Dufour et Phil. Roux, 1779, xxiv, 340 p., 29 cm; disponible à http://books.google.com/books?id=CKk_AAAAcAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:code+intitle:criminel&lr=&as_drrb_is=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=1990&as_brr=3&ei=fZW1S4eCC5T8zQSogdWXBQ&cd=4#v=onepage&q=&f=false  (accessed on 2 April 2010); voir l'article CLXVI. "Du vol fait dans une famine", aux pp. 251-252; on microfiche, 4 24X fiche, LLMC 89-018, see http://www.llmc.com/;

ARTICLE CLXVI.
Du vol fait dans une famine.

Si quelqu'un, pressé par une véritable famine, que lui, sa femme, ou ses enfants pourroient souffrir, venoit à voler des nourritures, & que le vol fût considérable & connu, les Juges, comme il vient d'être dit, consulteront sur ce qu'ils auront à statuer.  Un tel Voleur, quoique relâché sans punition, n'aura aucun recours contre l'accusateur, pour raison de ses poursuites. (p. 251)


VON LISZT, Franz, Traité de droit pénal allemand, Tome Premier - Introduction - Partie générale, traduction de René Lobstein, Paris: Giard & E. Brière, 1911,  xiv, 417 p., voir «§34. - L'Etat de nécessité» aux pp. 216-222;
 

WERLE, Gerhard, in cooperation with Florian Jessberger, Wulf Burchards, Volker Nerlich and Belinda Cooper, Principles of International Criminal Law, The Hague: TMC Asser Press, c2005, xii, 485 p., and see "Necessity and Duress",  pp. 143-148, ISBN: 9067041963 and 9067042021 (pbk.); copy at the University of Ottawa, FTX General, K5000 .W47 2005;
 

WERTHEIMER, Alan, Coercion, Princeton (New Jersey): Princeton University Press, 1987, xiii, 318 p., see chapter 8, "Duress and Necessity as Defenses in the Criminal Law", pp. 144-169 (series; Studies in Moral, Political and Legal Philosophy), ISBN: 0691077592 and 0691023220;
 

WILLIAMS, Glanville, 1911-, Criminal Law: The General Part, 2nd ed., London: Stevens & Sons, 1961, liv, 929 p., see in "Chapter 17 Necessity, Impossibility and Good Motive",  pp. 722-746;
 

___________The sanctity of life and the criminal law. With a foreword by William Warren, 1st ed., New York, Alfred A. Knopf, 1957, xi, 350, xi p., see Chapter 5, "The Law of Abortion" at pp. 146-191; see also, Chapter 6, "The Problem of Abortion: Morality and the Social Facts", particularly at  pp. 199-200;
 

___________Textbook of Criminal Law, 2nd ed., London: Stevens & Sons, 1983, xlv, 1007 p., see "Chapter 26 Necessity" at pp. 597-623, ISBN: 042048501 and 0420468609 (Pbk);
 

WILSON, Williams, Central Issues in Criminal Theory, Oxford (England)/Portland (Oregon): Hart Publishing, 2002, ix, 380 p., see Chapter 10, "Criminal Defences: Setting Limits to Justifications", at pp. 293-323; ISBN: 1841130621; copy at the Library of the Supreme Court of Canada K5018 W55 2002 c. 01;
 

WRIGHT, R. George, Does the Law Morally Bind the Poor?: Or, What Good's the Constitution when You Can't Afford a Loaf of Bread?, New York: New York University Press, 1996, vii, 219 p., ISBN: 0814792944;
 

ZADEH, Biglar,  La contrainte en droit pénal français, mémoire Paris II, 1975; texte non consulté mais cité par Marie-Élisabeth Cartier, supra, p. 28, note 3;
 

B- Articles
 

ALDRIDGE, Robert and Virginia Stark, "Nuclear War, Citizen Interventions, and the Necessity Defense", (1986) Santa Clara Law Review 299-353;
 

ALEXANDER, Larry, "Affirmative Duties and the Limits of Self-Sacrifice", (1996) 15 Law and Philosophy 65; copy at the University of Ottawa, K 2021 .L39  Location FTX Periodicals;
 

___________"Deontology at the Threshold", (2000) 37 San Diego Law Review 893-912;
 

___________"Lesser Evils: A Closer Look at the Paradigmatic Justification", 34 p., available at  http://www.lawandphil.rutgers.edu/alexander.pdf (accessed on 17 October 2004); now published in (November 2005) 24(6) Law and Philosophy 611-643;
 

___________"A Unified Excuse of Preemptive Self-Protection",  (1999) 74 Notre Dame Law Review 1475-1505;
 

ALLDRIDGE, Peter, "Duress, duress of circumstances and necessity", (1989) 139 New Law Journal 911-912 and 917;


___________"Necessity and mistake of law in the draft criminal code", (March 1986) 8(1) Liverpool Law Review 37-52; title of article noted in my research but article not consulted yet;
 

AMBOS, Kai, "May a State Torture Suspects to Save the Life of Innocents?", (2008) 6(2) Journal of International Criminal Justice 261-287; German and Israeli law; available at http://lehrstuhl.jura.uni-goettingen.de/kambos/Person/doc/May%20a%20state%20torture%20...%20JICJ%206%20(2008),%20261.pdf (accessed on 26 May 2008);


___________ "Other Grounds for Excluding Criminal Responsibility", in Antonio Cassese, Paola Gaeta and John R.W.D. Jones, eds., The Rome Statute of the
International Criminal Court, volume I, Oxford/New York: Oxford University Press, 2002, cxl, 1048 p., Chapter 24.4, at pp. 1003-1048, see on duress/necessity, pp. 1005-1018, 1023-1027 and 1035-1047, ISBN: 0199243123 (vol. 1) and 0198298625 (set of 3 volumes); copy at Ottawa University, FTX General: KZ 6310
.R64 2002 v. 1;
 

ANDREJEW, Igor, "L'état de nécessité d'après le droit pénal polonais" dans Congrès international de droit comparé (8e : 1970 : Pescara, Italie), Rapports polonais: présentés au 8e Congrès international de droit comparé, Varsovie: Congrès international de droit comparé, 1970, 338 p. aux pp. 7-13;
 

ANNAS, George J., "Conjoined Twins -- The Limits of Law at the Limits of Life", (5 April 2001) 344(14) The New England Journal of Medicine 1104-1108;
 

___________"The Limits of Law at the Limits of Life: Lessons from Cannibalism, Euthanasia, Abortion, and the Court-Ordered Killing of One Conjoined Twin to Save the Other", (2000-2001) 33 Connecticut Law Review 1275-1296;

APONTE, Luis Ernesto Chiesa, "Normative Gaps in the Criminal Law: A Reasons Theory of Wrongdoing", (2007) 10(1) New Criminal Law Review 102-141;

"In this article it is argued that in two controversial homicide cases—severing conjoined twins and downing a hijacked commercial plane headed toward a heavily populated area—it is permissible to kill innocent human beings without having to establish the existence of a claim of justification such as selfdefense or choice of evils." (see full abstract at http://caliber.ucpress.net/doi/abs/10.1525/nclr.2007.10.1.102?prevSearch=authorsfield%3A%28Aponte%2CLuis+Ernesto+Chiesa%29  (accessed on 2 April 2007)
 

ARAUJO, FR. Robert J., "Implementation of the ICJ Advisory Opinion -- Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory : Fences [Do Not] Make Good Neighbors?", (2004) 22 Boston University International Law Journal 349-398; see on State necessity, pp. 383-384;
 

ARNOLDS, Edward B. and Norman F. Garland, "The Defense of Necessity in Criminal Law: The Right to Choose the Lesser Evil", (1974) 65 Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology 289-301;
 

ARZT, Gunther, "An Introduction to the 1975 German Criminal Code" in The Criminal Justice System of the Federal Republic of  Germany : Proceeding of the Conference Sponsored by : the American National Section (U.S.A.) AIDP, the Goethe  Institute of Chicago, De Paul University, College of Law  Held in Chicago, April 12, 1980, Toulouse :Édition Érès (Association internationale de droit pénal), 1981, 134 p. at pp. 15-28, see pp. 22-23  (series; Nouvelles études pénales 2), ISBN:  2865860043;
 

ASHWORTH, Andrew,  "Reason, Logic and Criminal Liability"  (1975) 91 The Law Quarterly Review 102-130, at 106;
 

ASSOCIATION INTERNATIONALE DE DROIT PÉNAL  (AIDP) (International Association of Penal Law), "Projet de Code pénal international", (1981) 52(1-2) Revue internationale de droit pénal;

"Paragraphe 3. Nécessité

3.0. Agit en état de nécessité quiconque, en raison de circonstances qu'il ne contrôle pas et qui peuvent entraîner des préjudices privés ou publics, s'engage dans un comportement constituant autrement un crime qu'il croit raisonnablement nécessaire pour éviter un préjudice imminent et plus important, résultant probablement de ces circonstances, sans que son comportement puisse entraîner la mort.


Paragraphe 4. Contrainte

4.0. Agit sous la contrainte, quiconque lorsque, forcé par une autre personne par des menaces imminentes ou l'emploi de violence contre lui-même ou autrui, s'engage dans un comportement constituant autrement un crime qu'il n'aurait normalement pas commis, à condition que ce comportement forcé ne produise pas des préjudices supérieurs à celui qu'il doit subir, et qu'il ne puisse pas entraîner la mort." (source: http://www.penal.org/pdf/livr-annexe-11.pdf et voir aussi http://www.penal.org/new/activites.php?Doc_zone=ACTIVITE&langage=fr&ID_doc=30; sites vérifiés le 13 novembre 2007)

AUSSEL, Jean-Marie, «La contrainte et la nécessité en droit pénal (force majeure, contrainte physique et morale, cas fortuit, état de nécessité et légitime défense)» dans Quelques aspects de l'autonomie du droit pénal : Études de Droit criminel, Paris : Librairie Dalloz, 1956, xii, 423 p., au chapitre 4,  pp. 253-292;
 

BAGARIC, Mirko, "The Jodie and Mary (Siamese Twins) Case: The problem with rights", (2001) 8 Journal of Law and Medicine 311; titre noté dans mes recherches mais article non consulté;  aucune copie de ce périodique dans la région d'Ottawa, selon ma vérification du catalogue AMICUS de Bibliothèque et Archives Canada; copie à l'Université de Montréal et à l'Université Laval;
 

BAGARIC, Mirko and Julie Clarke, "Not Enough Official Torture in the World?  The Circumstances in Which Torture is Morally Justifiable", (Spring 2005) 39(3) University of San Francisco Law Review 581-616;
 

BAHNASSI, Ahmad Fathi, "Criminal Responsibility in Islamic Law" in M. Cherif Bassiouni, ed., The Islamic Criminal Justice, London: Oceana Publications, 1982, xii, 255 p. at pp. 171-193, see "Self-Defense" at pp. 184-185,  ISBN: 0379207451.
 

BAKIRCIOGLU, Onder, "The Countours of the Right of Self-defence Is the Requirement of Imminence Merely a Translator for the Concept of Necessity?", (April 2008) 72(2) Journal of Criminal Law 131-169;

BANNISTER, Shelley and Dragan Milovanovic, "The Necessity Defence, Substantive Justice and Oppositional Linguistic Praxis", (1990) 18 International Journal of the Sociology of Law 179-198;
 

BANTEKAS, Ilias, "Defences in International Criminal Law", in Dominic McGoldrick, Peter Rowe, and Eric Donnelly, eds., The Permanent International Criminal Court: Legal and Policy Issues, Oxford (England)/Portland (Oregon): Hart Publishing, xviii, 498 p., at pp. 263-284, and see "Duress and Necessity", at pp. 274-277, (series; Studies in International Law; volume 5), ISBN: 1841132810; copy at the Library of the Supreme Court of Canada, KZ 6310 P47 2004;
 

BAUER, Steven M. and Peter J. Eckerstrom, Note, "The State Made Me Do It: The Applicability of the Necessity Defense to Civil Disobedience", (1986-87) 39 Stanford Law Review 1173 to 1200;
 

BAYLES,  Michael D., "Reconceptualizing Necessity and Duress", (1987) 33 Wayne Law Review 1191-1220; also published in Michael Louis Corrado, ed., Justification and Excuse in the Criminal Law: A Collection of Essays, New York, Garland Pub., 1994, pp. 429-463, (series; Garland  Reference Library of Social Science; vol. 831) and (series; Garland Studies in Applied Ehics; vol. 1), ISBN:  0815308256;


BEDI, Monu Singh, Excusing Behavior: Reclassifying the Federal Common Law Defenses of Duress and Necessity Relying on the Victim’s Role (January 17, 2011). Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, Forthcoming. Available at SSRN: http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1742647  (accessed on 20 March 2011);

 

BENNUN, Meruyn E.,  "Necessity - Yet Another Analysis", (1986) 21 The Irish Jurist 186-207;


BERGER, Virginie, "Les limites du contrôle social : l'exemple de l'état de nécessité", (2004, numéro 6)  Les Cahiers du GERHICO 157-165; titre noté dans mes recherches mais document non consulté (source http://www.criminocorpus.cnrs.fr/article.php3?id_article=30, site visité le 25 août 2007);
 

____________Un vol de nécessité : le vol d'aliments dans la Vienne dans la première moitié du XIXème siècle, mémoire de maîtrise, Université de Poitiers, 1999, 110 feuilles; directeur de thèse: Frédéric Chauvaud;


___________"Le vol nécessaire au XIXème siècle.  Entre réalité sociale et lacune juridique, une histoire en construction", Hors-série, 2001, Histoire et justice, Panorama de la recherche 241-251; disponible à http://rhei.revues.org/docannexe.html?id=465 (vérifié le 6 octobre 2007);


BERMAN, Mitchell N., "Lesser Evils and Justification: A Less Close Look",  (November 2005) 24(6) Law and Philosophy 681-709; available at http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=872904 (accessed on 25 March 2008);
 

BERNSMANN, Klaus, "Private Self-Defence and Necessity in German Penal Law and in the Penal Law Proposal - Some Remarks", (1996) 30 Israel Law Review 171-187;
 

BERRING, Robert C., Book Review, "CANNABALISM AND THE COMMON LAW; by Brian Simpson. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984...", (1985) 73 California Law Review 252-258; copy at Ottawa University, KFC 69 .C335  Location: FTX Periodicals;
 

BETTIGOLE, Kyle, "Defending against Defense: Civil Resistance, Necessity and the United States Military's Toxic Legacy", (1993-94) 21 Boston College Environmental Affairs Law Review 667-708;
 

BINAVINCE, Emilio S., "The Doctrine of Mens Rea in Germany", in Travaux du quatrième colloque international de droit comparé tenu à Ottawa (Canada)  du  5 au 7 septembre 1966 sous les auspices du Centre canadien de droit comparé, de la faculté de droit de l'Université d'Ottawa, de l'Association  canadienne de droit comparé/Proceedings of the Fourth International Symposium on Comparative Law held in Ottawa (Canada) September 5 to 7,  1966 under the patronage of The Canadian and Foreign Law Research Centre, The Faculty of Law of the University of Ottawa, The Canadian Association of Comparative Law, Ottawa: Éditions de l'Université d'Ottawa/University of Ottawa Press, 1967,  see/voir pp. 150-151 and 160-162 on German law (series; Collection des travaux de la Faculté de droit de l'Université d'Ottawa), pp. 143-163;
 

BLEICH, J. David, "Conjoined Twins", (1996) 31 Tradition 92-125; title noted in my research but article not consulted yet; Library and Archives Canada may have a copy;


BLUM, Gabriella, "The Laws of War and the 'Lesser Evil', 12 December 2008, available at SSRN: http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1315334  (accessed on 20 December 2008);  see also draft of 4 August 2008 at http://www.law.harvard.edu/faculty/workshops/open/papers0708/blum.paper.pdf (accessed on 9 March 2009);
 

BOHLANDER, Michael, "In Extremis?  Hijacked  Airplanes  'Collateral Damage ' and the Limits of Criminal Law", [2006] Criminal Law Review  579;


___________ "Of Shipwrecked Sailors, Unborn Children, Conjoined Twins and Hijacked Airplanes -- Taking Human Life and the Defence of Necessity", (April 2006) 70(2) The Journal of Criminal Law 147-161;

BOHLEN, Francis H., "Incomplete privilege to inflict intentional invasions of interests of property and personality",  (1925-26) 39 Harvard Law Review 307-324; copy at Ottawa University, KFM 2469 .H457  Location, FTX Periodicals; based on tort law, philosophy;

BOOCHEVER, Honorable Robert, "Limiting Necessity - The Anatomy of a Decision", (1993) 22 Southwestern University Law Review 1115-1126; research note: deals in part with "United States v. Schoon 939 F.2d 826 (9th Cir. 1991), and modified, 955 F.2d 1238 (9th Cir. 1992), and modified 971 F.2d 193 (9th Cir. 1992), cert. denied 112 S.Ct. 2980 (1992)"; deals with necessity and indirect civil disobedience;
 

BOXERMAN, Arlene D., "The Use of the Necessity Defense by Abortion Clinic Protesters", (1990) 81 Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology 677-712; Research Note: Contains references to other articles on political protesters and the defence of necessity not cited in this bibliography;
 

BRANDT, R.B., "Conscience (Rule) Utilitarianism and the Criminal Law", (1995) 14 Law and Philosophy 65-89; see pp. 86-88 on necessity;
 

BRODY, Burton F., "Son of the Speluncean Explorer", (1969-70) 55 Iowa Law Review 1233-1247; copy at Ottawa University, KFI 4269 .I572  Location: FTX Periodicals;
 

BROOKBANKS, W.J., "The defence of necessity", ( January1992) New Zealand Law Journal 8-11;
 

BRONKHORST, C., "L'état de nécessité" in Netherlands Reports to the VIII th International Congress of Comparative Law Pescara 1970, Deventer: Kluwer, 1970, xiv, 400 p., at pp. 341-352, ISBN: 9026804431;


BRONITT,  Simon and Saskia Hufnagel,  "Comparative Perspectives on the Use of Lethal Force Against Hijacked Aircraft: Recent Developments in Europe and Australia", available at SSRN: http://ssrn.com/abstract=1057841 (accessed on 27 February 2008);
 

BRUDNER, Alan, "A Theory of Necessity", (1987) 7 Oxford  Journal of Legal Studies 339-368; also published in Thomas Morawetz, ed., Criminal Law, 2nd ed., Aldershot, England : Ashgate Dartmouth, 2000,  xvi, 478 p., at pp. 329-358,  (series; The international library of essays in law and legal theory; 2nd ser.; volume 5), ISBN: 184014775X;


___________"Excusing Necessity and Terror: What Criminal Law Can Teach Constitutional Law", (June 2009) 3(2) Criminal Law and Philosophy 147-166;

BRUGGER, Winfried, "May Government Ever Use Torture? Two Responses from German Law", (2000) 48 American Journal of Comparative Law 661-678; does not deal directly with the defence of necessity but useful for researchers;


BUNDESVERFASSUNGSGERICHT -- Pressestelle -- Press release, "Authorization to shoot down aircraft in the Aviation Security Act void", Press relase no. 11/2006 of 15 February 2006, Zum Judgment of 15. February 2006 – 1 BvR 357/05, available at http://www.bundesverfassungsgericht.de/pressemitteilungen/bvg06-011en (accessed on 7 July 2006);

BURNHAM, William, "The New Russian Criminal Code: A Window unto Democratic Russia", (2000) 26(4) Review of Central and East European Law 365-424, see "Duress and Necessity" at pp. 394-395; copy at Carleton University;

"ARTICLE 39 EXTREME NECESSITY

    (1) Conduct that falls within the description of actions defined in the Special Part of this Code does not constitute a crime if it was the product of circumstances of extreme necessity, i.e., the need to eliminate a danger that threatens the interests, the person or the rights of the actor or other citizens, so long as that danger could not be eliminated by other means and the limits of extreme necessity are not exceeded.

    (2) The limits of extreme necessity are exceeded when harm is inflicted that clearly does not correspond to the character and degree of the threatened danger and the circumstances under which the danger was eliminated, and when the harm done to the stated interests is more significant than the harm that is sought to be prevented." (p. 395; posted on the web on 2 July 2002)
 

BYBEE, Jay S., see infra, US, US Department of Justice, Jay S. Bybee, Assistant Attorney General;


BYRD, B. Sharon, "Kant's Theory of Punishment: Deterrence in its Threat, Retribution in its Execution", (1989) 8 Law and Philosophy 151-200, see pp. 188-191 on Kant and necessity;
 

___________"Two Models of Justice", (1993) 1 Annual Review of Law and Ethics 45-68, see "Necessity" at pp. 53-54; copy at the University of Ottawa, MRT Periodicals, K123 .A13 J34;
 

CAHN, Naomi, John Calmore, Mary Coombs, Dwight Greene, Geoffrey Miller, Jeremy Paul, and Laura Stein, "The Case of the Speluncean Explorers: Contemporary Proceedings", (1993) 51 George Washington Law Review1754-1811; copy at Ottawa University, KF 292 .D4 G46  Location, FTX Periodicals;
 

CALDWELL, John, "The English Conjoined Twins: Some Legal and Ethical Issues", (Summer 2001) 21(2) Children's Legal Rights Journal 24-32; copy at the Library of the Supreme Court of Canada, periodicals;
 

CAMERON, Neil, "Defences and the Crimes Bill" in Neil Cameron and Simon France, eds., Essays on Criminal Law in New Zealand Towards Reform?,  Victoria: Victoria University of Wellington Law Review and Victoria University Press), 1990, 243 p., at pp. 57-82,  see discussion on necessity and clause 30 of the New Zealnd Crimes Bill 1989 at pp. 68- 74 (series; VUW Law Review Monograph 3), ISBN: 0864732066; research note: for more information on the New Zealand Crimes Bill 1989, see New Zealand, infra;
 

CARNAHAN, Burrus M., "Lincoln, Lieber and the Laws of War: The Origins and Limits of the Principle of Military Necessity", (1998) 92(2) American Journal of
International Law 213-231;
 

CARTIER, Marie-Élisabeth, "Contrainte et nécessité", (1982) 30 Annales de l'Université des Sciences Sociales de Toulouse 27-63;
 

"The Case of the Speluncean Explorers: A Fiftieth Anniversary Symposium", (1999) 112 Harvard Law Review 1834-1923 [contributions by Lon L. Fuller; Paul Butler; Alan D. Dershowitz; Frank H. Easterbrook; Alex Kozinski; Cass R. Sunstein; Robin L. West and David L. Shapiro];
 

CAVALLARO, James L., "The Demise of the Political Necessity Defense: Indirect Civil Disobedience and the United States v. Schoon", (1993) 81(1) California Law Review 351-385;
 

CHAN, Winnie and A.P. Simester, "Analysis.  Duress, Necessity: How Many Defences?", (2005) 16(1) The King's College Law Journal 121-132;  copy at the University of Ottawa, FTX Periodicals,  KD460 .K5532;


CHASE, Anthony, "Book Review: Cannibalism and the Common Law: The Story of the Tragic Last Voyage of the Mignonette and the Strange Legal Proceedings to Which It Gave Rise. By A.W. Brian Simpson.** Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1984. Pp. xiv, 353. $25.00", (1984-85) 94 Yale Law Journal  1253-1269;
 

CHEVALIER, Jean-Yves, «L'état de nécessité (Le rôle du  Doyen P. Bouzat dans la reconnaissance de  l'infraction nécessaire en droit positif)» dans Mélanges en l'honneur du doyen Pierre Bouzat, Paris : A. Pedone, 1980, xxxii, 539 p. aux pp. 117-134, ISBN : 2233000811;
 

 A (Children) [2000] EWCA Civ 254 (22nd September, 2000), England and Wales Court of Appeal (Civil Division); the case of the Siamese twins;
 

CHRISTIE, George C., "The Defense of Legal Necessity Considered from the Legal and Moral Points of View", (1998-99) 48 Duke Law Journal 975-1042; copy at Ottawa University, KFN 7469 .D84 Location: FTX Periodicals;
 

CHRISTIANI, Cynthia, "State by State Medical Necessity Defense -- The National Organization for the Reform of Marihuana Laws, 11/10/2003, 40 p.; available at  http://www.norml.org/pdf_files/brief_bank/NORML_Legal_Brief_Bank_Medical_Necessity_Defense_by_State.pdf (accessed on 10 December 2005);
 

CLARK, Melissa L., "Israel's High Court of Justice Ruling on the General Security Service Use of Moderate Physical Pressure: An End to the Sanctioned Use of Torture", (2000-2001) 11 Indiana International & Comparative Law Review 145-182;
 

CLARKSON, C.M.V., "Necessary Action: A New Defence", [2004] Criminal Law Review 81-104; 


COHAN, John Allan, "Necessity, Political Violence and Terrorism", (Spring 2006) 35(3) Stetson Law Review 903-981; available at  http://www.law.stetson.edu/lawrev/abstracts/PDF/35-3Cohan.pdf (accessed on 21 March 2007);
 

COHEN, David, "The Development of the Modern Doctrine of  Necessity: A Comparative Critique" in Albin Eser, George P. Fletcher, Karin Cornils, Barbara Huber, Ewa Weigend and Thomas Weigend, eds., Justification and Excuse: Comparative Aspects, volume 2, Dobbs Ferry (N.Y.): Transnational Juris Publications, Inc., 1987,  pp. 973-1001, ISBN: 0929179269;
 

COHEN, Neil P., Michael G. Johnson, and Tracy B. Henley, "The Prevalence and use of Criminal Defenses: A Preliminary Study", (1992-93) 60 Tennessee Law Review 957-982;
 

COHEN, von David (David J.), "Necessity and Notstand, A Comparative Critique," (1985)  Rechtshistorisches Journal 215-234; copy at University of Western Ontario, D.B. Weldon Library; title noted in my research but article not consulted; no copy of this periodical in the Ottawa area libarries according to my verification of the AMICUS catalogue on 29 July 2003;
 

COLBERT, Douglas L., "The Motion in Limine: Trial Without Jury: A Government's Weapon against the Sanctuary Movement", (1986-87) 15 Hofstra Law Review 5-78, and see, in particular, "Necessity Defense", at pp. 64-69;

Comment, "The Law of Necessity as Applied to the Bisbee Deportation Case", (1961) 3 Arizona Law Review 264-279;
 

CONDE, Michelle R., "Comments - Necessity Defined: A New Role in the Criminal Defense System", (1981-82) 29 University of California at Los Angeles Law Review 409-446;
 

CONSTANT, Jean., "L'état de nécessité en droit pénal belge" dans Rapports belges au VIIIe Congrès international  de droit comparé, Pescara, 29 août - 5 septembre 1970, Bruxelles : (C.I.D.C.) [Centre Interuniversitaire de droit comparé], 1970 aux  pp. 761-777;
 

CORNELIS, Ludo and Pierre Van Ommeslaghe, "Les 'faits justificatifs' dans le droit belge de la responsabilité aquilienne", in Journées d'études sur le droit de la responsabilité (1984: Gand, Belgique), Limpens, Jean, 1910-1979, Centre interuniversitaire de droit comparé, In  memoriam Jean Limpens : Studiedagen aansprakelijkheidsrecht, Gent, 23-24 maart 1984 = In memoriam Jean Limpens : Journées d'études sur le droit de la responsabilité, Gent, 23-24 mars 1984 = In memoriam Jean Limpens : Symposium on Civil Liability, Gent, 23-24 March 1984, Antwerpen : Kluwer rechtswetenschappen, 1987, xxvii, 311 p., aux pp. 265-287, et voir "L'état de nécessité", aux pp. 278-280 (series; Interuniversitair Centrum voor Rechtsvergelijking; 12), (Collection; Centre interuniversitaire de droit comparé; 12), ISBN: 9063212879; copy at the Library of the Supreme Court of Canada, K923 Z9 I56 1987; droit civil mais un article utile pour les chercheurs et chercheuses;
 

CROCKER, Thomas  P., "Overcoming Necessity: Torture and the State of Constitutional Culture",  (2008) 61(2) Sourn Methodist University Law Review 221 to approx. 281; available at http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1116680 (accessed on 21 October 2008);

CROSS, Rupert., "Necessity Knows No Law", (1969-70) 3 University of Tasmania Law Review 1-11 (1968 Turner Memorial Lecture);
 

CZACHORSKI, Witold, "Causes de justification -- Note pour les pays socialistes", in Journées d'études sur le droit de la responsabilité (1984: Gand, Belgique), Limpens, Jean, 1910-1979, Centre interuniversitaire de droit comparé, In  memoriam Jean Limpens : Studiedagen aansprakelijkheidsrecht, Gent, 23-24 maart 1984 = In memoriam Jean Limpens : Journées d'études sur le droit de la responsabilité, Gent, 23-24 mars 1984 = In memoriam Jean Limpens : Symposium on Civil Liability, Gent, 23-24 March 1984, Antwerpen : Kluwer rechtswetenschappen, 1987, xxvii, 311 p., aux pp. 251-264, et voir "L'état de nécessité", aux pp. 256-257 (series; Interuniversitair Centrum voor Rechtsvergelijking; 12), (Collection; Centre interuniversitaire de droit comparé; 12), ISBN: 9063212879; copy at the Library of the Supreme Court of Canada, K923 Z9 I56 1987; droit civil mais un article utile pour les chercheurs et chercheuses;
 

DAHL, Henry, "The Influence and Application of the Standard Penal Code for Latin America", (1990) 17 American Journal of Criminal Law 235-262, see pp. 245-247 on "State of Necessity"; this article is followed by the "Standard Penal Code for Latin America" translated by José M. Canals and Henry Dahl, at ibid., 263-285, see p. 266, article 17 on necessity; research note:  for a French version of the Code pénal type latino-américain, see Ramirez, infra;
 

D'AMATO, Anthony, "The Speluncean Explorers - Further Proceedings", (1979-80) 32 Stanford Law Review 467-85; copy at Ottawa University, KFC 69 .S725  Location, FTX Periodicals;
 

DANTI-JUAN, Michel, «État de nécessité», octobre 1997  sous la direction de Maurice Aydalot et Pierre Arpaillance et, depuis 1993, Yves Mayaud, Secrétaire Général de la rédaction Philippe Gallier, Répertoire de droit pénal et de procédure pénale, Tome III, Paris : Éditions Dalloz, 1997; note de recherche : copie de cette publication à la librairie de la Cour suprême du Canada, Ottawa;
 

DAVID, Eric, "L'excuse de l'ordre supérieur et l'état de nécessité", (1978) 14 Revue belge de droit international 65-84; copie à la Bibliothèque de l'Université d'Ottawa, FTX Périodiques, K21 .E87;


DAWKINS, Kevin, "The defence of duress of circumstances in New Zealand", in J. Bruce (James Bruce) Robertson, ed., Essays on criminal law: a tribute to Professor Gerald Orchard, Wellington: Brookers, 2004, at pp. 96-118; title noted in my research but article not consulted yet (30 April 2007);

DEBOVE, Frédéric, "La faim ne justifie pas les moyens", (février 1998) Droit pénal 4-6, 10 ième année, numéro 2;


DEGIROLAMI, Marc O.,  "The Choice of Evils and the Collisions of Theory", October 5, 2009, in Mark D. White, ed., Retributivism: Essays on Theory and Policy, Oxford University Press, forthcoming; avilable at http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1483293 (accessed on 11 October 2009);

___________"Culpability in Creating Criminal Necessity", (2009) 60 Alabama Law Review 597, available at SSRN: http://ssrn.com/abstract=1115835 (accessed on 3 April 2008); see also http://lsr.nellco.org/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1043&context=columbia_pllt (accessed on 5 September 2009);
 

DELMAS SAINT-HILAIRE, Jean-Pierre, «Faits justificatifs - État de nécessité,  art. 122-7» dans Henri Angevin et Albert Chavanne, directeurs de collections, Elizaabeth Dahan, directrice de rédaction et Michel Argenson, éditeur,  Juris-Classeur Pénal, vol. 1, Paris : Éditions du Juris-Classeur, article de 12 pages, daté 1996,  (Collection des Juris-classeurs); note de recherche: copie de cette publication à la librairie Fauteux de l'Université d'Ottawa;


DENNIS, Ian, "Necessity as a Defence to Crime", in "Foundational Issues in the Philosophy of Criminal Law,  Special Workshop at the 23rd IVR  Congress, 1-6 August 2007, Kraków, Poland",  at
223-241; available at http://cracow.nordstraff.net/223-241.pdf (accessed on 7 October 2007); note XXIII World Congress of Philosophy of Law  and Social Philosophy  in Cracow  (Poland);


____________"On Necessity as a Defence to Crime: Possibilities, Problems and the Limits of Justification and Excuse", (January 2009) 3(1) Criminal law and Philosophy 29-49; 


DINTELMAN, Betty, "Defenses of Necessity and Choice of Lesser Evils", available at  http://faculty.cua.edu/Pennington/Law111/NecessityDefense.htm (accessed on 5 July 2007);        
 

DISALVO, Charles R., "Necessity's Child:  The Judiciary, Disobedience, and the Bomb", (1986-87) 41 University of Miami Law Review 911-923; research note: deals with civil disobedience and the defence of necessity at pp. 920-923;
 

DIXON, John, "A Blueprint for Heroism or a Rational and Humane Code?", (1983) 7 Criminal Law Journal 132-141;
 

DOLINKO, David, "Intolerable Conditions as a Defense to Prison Escapes", (1979) 26 University of California at Los Angeles [UCLA] Law Review 1126-1182;
 

DORDEVIC, Miroslav, "L'état de nécessité" in Congrès international de droit comparé (8e : 1970 : Pescara, Italie), Rapports nationaux yougoslaves au VIIIe Congrès international de droit comparé,  Belgrade: Congrès international de droit comparé, 1970, 234 p. at pp. 205-211;


DOUGLASS, Geoff, "Dudley and Stephens Revisited and Updated”, (19 January 2002) 166(3) Justice of the Peace 40-43;
 

DREGER, Alice Demourat, "The Limits of Individuality: Ritual and Sacrifice in the Lives and Medical Treatment of Conjoined Twins", (1998) 1 Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part C: Biological and Biomedical Sciences 1-29;
 

DUBBER, Markus Dirk,  "Recht and Rechtsgut: The Objective of German Criminal Law", draft, working Paper, 23 September 2002, available in word format at the author's web site, http://wings.buffalo.edu/law/bclc/web/publications.htm (accessed on 17 November 2002), 10 p; note de recherche: article sur la notion de bien juridique;
 

DUCASSÉ, C., «L'état de nécessité dans la jurisprudence pénale», Receuil de l'Académie de législation de Toulouse, 5e série, vol. 4, 1959, pp. 123-153;
 

DURHAM, Cole and  George P. Fletcher, "Statutory Appendix", [1986] Brigham Young University Law Review 793-807, see pp. 805-806 for sections 34 and 35 of the German Penal Code on necessity as a justification and as an excuse and notes on these sections (the translation of sections 34-35 are from Fletcher and the comments from Durham);
 

DURHAM, W. Cole, "Reminiscence of Dialogue: Beyond the Papers of the Freiburg Conference" in A. Eser et al., eds.,  Justification and Excuse: Comparative Perspectives, vol. 1, Dobbs Ferry (New York), Transnational Juris Publications, 1987, ISBN: 0929179226, pp. 1489-1554, see at pp.1501-1509 for a discussion of the papers of Cohen, supra;


EIDAM, Lutz, Book Review, "Making Comparative Criminal Law Possible.  EINFÜHRUNG IN DAS US-AMERIKANISCHE STRAFRECHT.  By Markus Dirk Dubber.  Munich: C.H. Beck, 2005, Pp. xvii, 216, E[uro] 19.80" , (May 2006) 54(1) Buffalo Law Review 235-249, and see pp. 243-246;

"Another important difference between the American and the German laws of justification concerns one of the classic problems in the doctrinal rules of justification: weighing the value of lives.  Under German criminal law -- although not explicitly stated in section thirty-four of the German Penal Code -- balancing one human life against another or others is not permitted. ..."
(p. 244; 1 note omitted)

ELLIOTT, Catherine, Comment, "Murder and Necessity following the Siamese Twins Litigation", (2001) 65(1) The Journal of Criminal Law 66-75;
 

___________"A Comparative Analysis of Defences in English and French Criminal Law", (2000) 8(4) European Journal of Crime, Criminal Law and Criminal Justice 319-326, see "Defences with no equivalent in French law" at p. 325;
 

ELLIOTT, D.W., "Necessity, Duress and Self-Defence", [1989] Criminal Law Review 611-621;
 

ENKER, Arnold, "Duress, Self-Defence and Necessity in Israeli Law", (1996) 30 Israel Law Review 188-206;


___________" Severing the Conjoined Twins: In Re A in Jewish Law",  Conference Paper, International Society for the Reform of the Criminal Law, 2008, 10 p.;
 

___________, "The Use of Physical Force in Interrogations and the Necessity Defense" (Minerva Center For Human Rights Symposium on Torture) as seen on 6 November 1998 at http://humrts.huji.ac.il/enker.htmhttp://humrts.huji.ac.il/enker.htm ;
 

ESER, Albin, "Article 31: Grounds for excluding criminal responsibility" in Otto Triffterer, ed., Commentary on the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court: Observers' Notes, Article by Article, Baden Baden: Nomos Verlagsgesellschaft, 1999, xxviii, 1295 p. at pp. 537-554, ISBN: 3789061735; copy at the Department of External Affairs, Ottawa, call number: legal KZ 6310 .C734 1999; available at http://www.freidok.uni-freiburg.de/volltexte/3922/pdf/Eser_Grounds_for_excluding_criminal_responsibility.pdf (accessed on 5 May 2008); 


___________"'Defences' in War Crimes Trials", (1994) 24 Israel Yearbook on Human Rights 201-222, see "Necessity [of State and Personal] at pp. 211-212 and "Military Necessity" at pp. 219-220; available at http://www.freidok.uni-freiburg.de/volltexte/3734/pdf/Eser_Defences_in_war_crime_trials.pdf (accessed on 21 January 2008);
 

___________"Justification and Excuse", (1976) 24  American Journal of Comparative Law 621-637, see pp. 636-637 for sections 34 and 35 of the German Penal Code on necessity as a justification and an excuse; available at http://www.freidok.uni-freiburg.de/volltexte/3765/pdf/Eser_Justification_and_excuse_1976.pdf (accessed on 28 January 2008);
 

___________"Justification and Excuse: A Key Issue in the Concept of Crime" in Albin Eser et al., eds., Justification and Excuse: Comparative Perspectives, vol. 1, Dobbs  Ferry (New York), Transnational Juris Publications, 1987, ISBN: 0929179226, pp. 17-65; Research Note: on "Justifying Necessity", see  pp. 54-56 and on "Excusing Necessity", see pp. 59-60; available at http://www.freidok.uni-freiburg.de/volltexte/3906/pdf/Eser_Justification_and_excuse_2.pdf (accessed on 28 January 2008);
 

ESKRIDGE, William N., "The Case of the Speluncean Explorers: Twentieth Century Interpretation in a Nutshell", (1992-93) 61 George Washington Law Review 1731-1753; copy at Ottawa University, FTX periodicals, KF292 .D4 G46;
 

"Excerpts of the Report - Commission of Inquiry into the Methods of Investigation of the General Security Service Regarding Hostile Terrorist Activity", (1989) 23 Israel Law Review 146-187;
 

FAIRALL, Paul Ames, "Reflections on Necessity as a Justification for Torture",  (2004) 11 James Cook University Law Review 21- 35; copy at the University of Ottawa, FTX Periodicals, KU 86 .J343;

FARR, Emily, "United States v. Oakland Cannabis Buyers' Cooperative: The Medical Necessity Defense as an Exception to the Controlled Substances Act", (2002) 53(2) South Carolina Law Review 439-459; copy at Ottawa University, KFS 1869 .S69  Location, FTX Periodicals;
 

FASANELLI, Antonia K., "In re Eichorn: The Long Awaited Implementation of the Necessity Defense in a Case of the Criminalization of the Homelessness", (2000) 50(1) American University Law Review 323-354; copy at Ottawa University, Law Library, FTX, periodicals, KF 4225.A425; available at http://www.wcl.american.edu/journal/lawrev/50/fasanelli.pdf (accessed on 14 November 2002);
 

FELLER, S.Z.(Shneur-Zalman), "Defence of 'Necessity' and Its Limitations. M. & I. Shavit v. State of  Israel 1970 (II) 24 P.D. 325", (1971) 6 Israel Law Review 417-421;
 

___________"L'état de nécessité (Sect. V.A.3)" in S.Z. Feller, ed., Israeli Reports to the Eight International Congress of Comparative Law, Jerusalem:  Institute for Legislative Research and Comparative Law, 1970,  255 p., 1970, pp. 204-217 (series; Hebrew University of Jerusalem. Institute for Legislative  Research and Comparative Law; volume 17);
 

___________"Necessity Stricto Sensu as a Situation Negating the Criminality of An Act", (1972) 4 Mishpatim 5-30; title noted in my research but not consulted yet; no copy of this periodical in the Ottawa area libaries; I believe that the article is in English (if not in English should be in Hebrew);
 

___________"Not Actual Necessity but Possible Justification; Not Moderate Pressure, but Either Unlimited or None at All Symposium on the Report of the Commission of Inquiry into the Methods of Investigation of the General Security Service Regarding Hostile Terrorist Activity", (1989) 23 Israel Law Review 201-215;
 

FERGUSON, P.W., "Necessity and Coercion in Criminal Law", (1997) The Scots Law Times (News) 127-130; copy at the library of the Supreme Court of Canada, location: Room C, U.K. Law reports, JUR;

"Mr Ferguson discusses the principle of necessity as a defence to a criminal charge recently recognised in Moss v. Howdle, 31 January 1997 (1997 GWD 8-304), its relation to coercion, and its possible scope." (p. 127)


FERGUSON, William, "Necessity and Duress in Scots Law" [1986] Criminal Law Review 103-109;
 

FERZAN, Kimberley Kessler, "Torture, Necessity, and the Union of Law & Philosophy", (Fall 2004) 36(1) Rutgers Law Journal 183-190; available at at SSRN: http://ssrn.com/abstract=1116696  (accessed on 13 April 2008);
 

FINAN, John P., and John Ritson, "Tortious Necessity; the Privileged Defense", (1992-93) 26 Akron Law Review 1-13; civil law;
 

FINKELSTEIN, Claire Oakes, "Two Men and a Plank", (2001) 7(3) Legal Theory 279-306;
 

FLETCHER, George P., 1939-, "Excuse: Theory", in Joshua Dressler, editor in chief, Encyclopedia of crime & justice, 2nd ed., New York : Macmillan Reference USA, c2002,  4 v. (xxxvi, 1780 p.),  in vol. 2, at pp. 637-643, ISBN : 002865319X (for set of 4 volumes) and 0028653211 (vol. 2);
 

___________"Excuse: 1. Theory", in Sanford H. Kadish, ed., Encyclopedia of Crime and Justice, 1st ed., vol. 2, New York: Free Press, 1983, pp. 724-729, ISBN: 0029181110;
 

___________ "Fairness and Utility in Tort Theory", (1972) 85 Harvard Law Review 537-573;
 

___________"The Individualization of Excusing Conditions", (1974) 47 Southern California Law Review 1269-1309; also published in Michael Louis Corrado, ed., Justification and Excuse in the Criminal Law: A Collection of Essays, New York, Garland Pub., 1994, pp. 53-94,  (series; vol. 831 of Garland  Reference Library of Social Science and  vol. 1 of Garland Studies in Applied Ehics), ISBN: 0815308256;
 

___________"Justification: Theory", in Joshua Dressler, editor in chief, Encyclopedia of crime & justice, 2nd ed., New York : Macmillan Reference USA, c2002,  4 v. (xxxvi, 1780 p.), in vol. 2, at pp. 883-889, ISBN : 002865319X (for set of 4 volumes) and 0028653211 (vol. 2);
 

__________"Justification: 1. Theory", in Sanford H. Kadish, ed., Encyclopedia of Crime and Justice, 1st ed., vol. 3, New York: Free Press, 1983, pp. 941-946, ISBN:  0029181110;
 

FLETCHER, George P., 1939-, and  Steve Sheppard, 1963-, American law in a global context : the basics, New York : Oxford University Press, c2005, xii, 682 p., and see pp.42-53, ISBN: 0195167228 and 0195167236 (pbk.); copy at the University of Ottawa, FTX General, KF 380 .F59;
 

FLETCHER, Ronald Timothy, "The Medical Necessity Defense and De Minimis Protection for Patients Who Would Benefit from Using Marijuana for Medical Purposes: A Proposal to Establish Comprehensive Protection under Federal Drug Laws", (2002-2003) Valparaiso University Law Review 983-1034;
 

FLEURY, J.G. (Jean-Guy), Jus in bello and military necessity, Toronto : Canadian Forces College, 1998, Call #: 355.005 A5 1998 no.31; available at  http://wps.cfc.dnd.ca/papers/amsc1/012.html (accessed on 17 April 2005);
 

FOOT, Philippa, "The problem of abortion and the doctrine of the double effect" in James Rachels, 1941-, ed., Moral Problems: a collection of philosophical essays, 2nd ed., New York: Harper & Row, 1975, ix, 437 p., at pp. 59-70, ISBN: 0060453079; copy at Ottawa University, MRT General, HM 665 .R235 1975;
 

FORIERS, Paul, La pensée juridique de Paul Foriers, vol. 1, Bruxelles: Établissements Émile Bruylant, 1982, [vii], 438 p., voir 1) "La relativité de la loi pénale et l'état de nécessité" aux pp. 44A-44H (une note au bas de la page indique que cet article est un "Extrait de : La Vie Judiciaire, Paris, 1952, no 307, p. 1 et 3"); 2) "Relativité et asymétrie de la loi pénale" aux pp. 45-61 (une note au bas de la page indique que cet article est un "Extrait du Journal des tribunaux, 17 mai 1953"), (Collection; Travaux du Centre national de recherches de logique), ISBN: 2802702939; copie à la bibliothèque de la Cour suprême du Canada, K561 F67 1982;


FORSYTH, Miranda, "The Divorce or the Marriage of Morality and Law?  The Defence of Necessity in Pacific Island Countries",  (March 2010) 21(1) Criminal Law Forum  121-157;
 
 

FULLER, Leon L., 1902-1978, "The Case of the Speluncean Explorers: In the Supreme Court of Newgarth 4300", (1948-49) 62 Harvard Law Review 616-645; also published in Jules L. Coleman, ed., Crimes and Punishments, New York & London: Garland Publishing, 1994, xxiv, 560 p. at pp. 270-299 (series; Philosophy of Law), ISBN: 0815314000;  available at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-defense_%28theory%29 (accessed on 19 July 2006);

___________" L'affaire des spéléologues devant la Cour suprême de Newgarth, 4300", traduction française par François Chevrette, avril 2006, de l'article de Leon L. FULLER, "The Case of the Speluncean Explorers" (1949) 62 Harv. L. Rev. 616 à 645; disponible à  https://papyrus.bib.umontreal.ca/dspace/handle/1866/1331 et Voir/Ouvrir (vérifiés le 2 août 2008);

 

GAETA, Paola, "May Necessity Be Available as a Defence for Torture in the Interrogation of Suspected Terrorists?", (September 2004) 2(3) Journal of International Criminal Justice 785-794; copy at the Library of the Supreme Court of Canada;
 

GARCON, É. (Émile), "Compte-Rendus critiques:  Paul Moriaud. Du délit nécessaire et de l'état de nécessité. Paris, Larose et Forcel.", (1891) 15 Nouvelle Revue historique de droit français et  étranger 523-527;
 

GARDNER, Simon, "Direct Action and the Defence of Necessity", [2005] The Criminal Law Review 371-380;
 

___________"Instrumentalism and Necessity", (1986) 6 Oxford Journal Legal Studies 431-438;
 

___________"Necessity's Newest Inventions", (1991) 11 Oxford Journal of Legal Studies 125-135;
 

GERKENS, Jean-François, "État de nécessité et damnum incendii arcendi causa datum", (1997) 44 Revue internationale des droits de l'antiquité 121-153;  disponible à  http://www.ulg.ac.be/vinitor/rida/GERKENS.pdf;


"German Anti-Hijack Law",  November 9th, 2005; about Luftsicherheitsgesetz, Air Traffic Security Act, in force 15 January 2005, section 14, available at  http://conditionalstability.wordpress.com/2005/11/09/german-anti-hijack-law/  (accessed on 6 July 2006);

"A possibly unresolvable conflict
...
Manssen sees parallels to the 'finaler Rettungsschuss', which allows policemen to shoot a criminal in order to save lives. The main problem has more to do with the question 'Can one really say, this plane is flying into a building?' Constitutional expert Christoph Degenhart of the University of Leipzig on the other hand is not of the opinion that one can compare the Paragraph 14 of the Lutfsicherheitsgesetz with the finaler Rettungsschuss. “The finaler Rettungsschuss is meant to work against a participant in a criminal act, who has himself evoked the danger to his life.”


GHANAYIM, Khalid, "Excuse Necessity in Western Legal Philosophy", (January 2006) 19(1) The Canadian Journal of Law & Jurisprudence  31-65; translation by Avinoam Sharon; examines Pufendorf, Kant, Fichte and Feuerbach; important contribution to the subject particularly as to Kant;


__________"Excused Necessity: A Defence in the Criminal Code -- A Comparative and Doctrinal Study", (2006) 11(1) Canadian Criminal Law Review 53-96;
 

GILLON, Raanan, "Jodie and Mary, Conjoined Twins: a Case of Judicial Moral Hubris?", (2004) 72(1) Medico-Legal Journal 3-16;
 

GLAZEBROOK, P.R., "The Necessity Plea in English Criminal Law", (1972) 30 Cambridge Law Journal 87-119;
 

GRAVEN, Jean, «L'état de nécessité" justificatif des naufragés.  À propos du Radeau de La Méduse», (1969) 23 Revue internationale de criminologie et de police technique 135-146;


GREEN, Stuart P., "Looting, Law, and Lawlessness" (January 22, 2008). Tulane Law Review, Vol. 81, Hurricane Katrina Symposium Issue, 2007, available at SSRN: http://ssrn.com/abstract=917440  (accessed on 26 February 2008);
 

GREENAWALT, Kent, "Conflicts of Law and Morality Institutions of Amelioration", (1981) 67 Virginia Law Review 177- 236;
 

___________"Natural Law and Political Choice: The General Justification Defense - Criteria for Political Action and the Duty to Obey the Law", (1986) 36 Catholic University Law Review 1-44;
 

___________"A Vice of Its Virtues: The Perils of Precision in Criminal Codification, As Illustrated by Retreat, General Justification, and Dangerous Utterances", (1987-88) 19 Rutgers Law Journal 929-950, see "III. The General Justification Defense and 'Useful' Breaches of Rights" at pp. 937-942;
 

GROSS, Emanuel, "Discussion Report [Israel-Germany Bi-national Colloquium on Reform of Criminal Law], (1996) 30 Israel Law Review 340-346, see at pp. 344-345;
 

GROSS, Oren, "Are Torture Warrants Warranted?  Pragmatic Absolutism  and Official Disobedience", (2003-2004) 88 Minnesota Law Review 1481-1555;


GUR-ARYE, Miriam,, "Justifying the Distinction Between Justifications and Power (Justifications vs. Powers), (2011) 5(3) Criminal Law and Philosophy 293-313;

"Abstract
The paper suggests that there are two different ways in which a legal system restricts an individual’s rights. It can either grant a power that revokes the legal protection of the right or it can acknowledge the infringement of a legal right and yet justify such an infringement by means of a criminal law justification. The distinction proposed by the paper has both expressive and practical implications and is useful in solving dilemmas arising in emergencies when constitutional constraints make it impossible to grant the power to revoke legal protection of a basic right. In some of these situations a criminal law justification might support infringement of such a right. This claim is demonstrated by analyzing the ruling of the German Constitutional Court concerning the shooting down of a hijacked airplane in circumstances similar to those of September 11."  (source: , accessed on 16 October 2011)

__________"Legitimating Official Brutality: Can the War against Terror Justify Torture?", Society Jurisprudence and Social Policy Program JSP/Center for the Study of Law and Society Faculty Working Papers (University of California, Berkeley), 2003, paper 11, 57 pages; available at  http://repositories.cdlib.org/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1010&context=csls (accessed on 7 February 2005);
 

___________"Should the Criminal Law Distinguish Between Necessity as A Justification and Necessity as an Excuse", (1986) 102 Law Quarterly Review 71-89;


___________"The Use of Force by State Officials: Can One Ban Its Use and Yet Provide a Criminal Law Defense? (Shooting Down a Hijacked Airplane); available at http://law.huji.ac.il/upload/Gur_Arye_-_Shooting_Down_a_Hijacked_Airplane.pdf (accessed on 27 June 2009); international symposium, "Criminal Law in Times of Emergency", Djanogly Hall, Mishkenot Sha'ananim, Jerusalem, 21-22 May 2008;


HAKSAR, Vinit, "Necessary Evil: Justification, Excuse or Pardon" (2011) 5(3) Criminal Law and Philosophy  333-347
 

HALLBORG, Robert, "Comparing Harms: The Lesser-Evil Defence and the Trolley Problems", (1997) 3 Legal Theory 291-316;
 

HAN, Tan Cheng, "The General Exception of Necessity under the Singapore Penal Code", (1990) 32 Malaya Law Review 271-295;


HAREL, Alon and Assaf  Sharon, " 'Necessity Knows No Law' On Extreme Cases and  Uncodifiable  Necessities", 24 p.; international symposium, "Criminal Law in Times of Emergency", Djanogly Hall, Mishkenot Sha'ananim, Jerusalem, 21-22 May 2008;; available at http://law.huji.ac.il/upload/Harel-Sharon_-_Necessity_Knows_No_Law.pdf (accessed on 28 June 2009);
 

HARRIS, John, "Human Beings, Persons and Conjoined Twins: An Ethical Analysis of the Judgment In Re A", (Autumn 2001) 9 Medical Law Review 221-236;

HASNAS, John, "From Cannibalism to Caesareans: Two Conceptions of Fundamental Rights", (1994-95) 89 Northwestern University Law Review 900-941;

HAWKINS, Thomas H., "Necessity as a Statutory Defense in Texas: A Comparison with Other States", (1974-75) 3 American Journal of Criminal Law 233-264;
 

HERMAN, Joachim, "Causing the Conditions of One's Own Defense: The Multifaceted Approach of German Law", [1986] Brigham Young University Law Review 747-767, see pp. 757-763 for justifying and excusing necessity;
 

HESSE, Philippe-Jean, "Un droit fondamental vieux de 3 000 ans: l'état de nécessité -- Jalons pour une histoire de la notion", (jan-déc. 2002) numéro 2 Droits fondamentaux 1-24; disponible à http://www.droits-fondamentaux.org/IMG/pdf/doc-14.pdf (visionné le 30 juin 2002);
 

HEWSON, Barbara, "Killing off Mary: Was the Court of Appeal Right?", (Autumn 2001) 9 Medical Law Review 281-298;
 

HIRSCH, von A., "Review Essay / Lifeboat Law.  A.W. Brian  Simpson, Cannibalism and the Common Law. The University of Chicago Press, 1984", (1984)  4 Criminal Justice Ethics 88-94;
 

HITCHLER, W.H., "Necessity as a Defence in Criminal Cases", (1928-29) 33 Dickinson Law Review 138-148;


HOJECKA, Pavlina, "Regina v Dudley and Stephens", (Spring 2003) Common Law Review -- Issue 4, available at http://clr.prf.cuni.cz/ (accessed on 3 July 2006);

HOON, Henri de., «De l'état de nécessité en droit pénal et en droit civil", (1911-1920) 6 Revue de droit belge 29-57 et 79-101 cité par Offermans, p. 84; aussi publié à Bruxelles: Émile Bruylant, 1911; non consulté; cité par la doctrine française;

HORDER, Jeremy, "Self-Defence, Necessity and Duress: Understanding the Relationship", (1998) 16 Canadian Journal of Law & Jurisprudence 143-165;
 

HÖRNLE, Tatjana, "Shooting Down a Hijacked Plane -- A Violation of the Passengers Human Dignity?  The German Discussion", DRAFT, 25-4-2008, 22 p.; (available at http://law.huji.ac.il/upload/Hornle_-_the_German_Discussion.pdf, accessed on 27 June 2009); international symposium, "Criminal Law in Times of Emergency", Djanogly Hall, Mishkenot Sha'ananim, Jerusalem, 21-22 May 2008;


___________"Shooting Down a Hijacked Plane -- The Government Discussion and Beyond", (June 2009) 3(2) Criminal Law and Philosophy 111-131;

HRUSCHKA, Joachim, "On the History of Justification and Excuse in Cases of Necessity" in Werner Krawietz, Neil MacCormick and Georg Henrik von Wright, eds., Prescriptive Formality and Normative Rationality in Modern Legal Systems: Festschrift for Robert S. Summers, Berlin: Duncker & Humblot, 1994, xxx, 705 p. at pp. 337-349, ISBN: 3428078950; with the same title in: John B. Hench, ed., Three hundred years of the American newspaper/ essays by Charles E. Clark ... [et al.], Worcester [Mass.] : American Antiquarian Society, 1991, at p. 337;
 

HUFNAGEL,  Saskia M, "German Perspectives on the Right to Life and Human Dignity in the 'War on Terror'", (2008) 32 Criminal Law Journal 100-113; available at SSRN: http://ssrn.com/abstract=1137765 (accessed on 2 June 2008);


HUSAK, Douglas N., Philosophy of Criminal Law, Totowa (New Jersey): Rowman & Littlefield, 1987, xi, 266 p., see in particular pp. 66-69 and 202-207, ISBN: 0847675505 and 0847675637 (pbk.);
 

HUXLEY, P.H.J., "Proposals and Counter Proposals on the Defence of Necessity", [1978] Criminal Law Review 141-149;


HUXTABLE, Richard, "Logical separation?  Conjoined twins, slippery slopes and resource allocation", (2001) 23(4) Journal of Social Welfare and Family Law 459-471;
 

ISENBERG, Robin (note developed by), "Medical Necessity As a Defense to Criminal Liability: United States v. Randall", (1977-78) 46 George Washington Law Review 273-298;
 

IWANICKI, Jack, "Necessity"  in Christopher Berry Gray, ed., The Philosophy of Law: An Encyclopedia, New York Garland Publishing, 1999, 2 volumes (xxxviii, 950 p.), in vol. 2, at pp. 582-584 (series; Garland reference library of the humanities ; vol. 1743), ISBN: 0815313446;
 

JESCHECK,  Hans-Heinrich, "Droit pénal - Procédure pénale", traduction et adaptation de Alfred Rieg, dans Michel Fromont and Alfred Rieg (sous la direction de),  Introduction au droit allemand: République fédérale, tome 2, Droit  public - Droit pénal, Paris : Éditions Cujas, 1984,  pp. 253-337, voir pp. 270-272 et 290-291, ISBN: 2254840308;
 

___________"The General Principles of International Criminal Law Set Out in Nuremberg, as Mirrored in the ICC Statute", (2004) 2(1) Journal of International Criminal Justice 38-55, and see "Necessity and Duress", at pp. 47-48;
 

___________"Histoire, principes et réalisation de la réforme du droit pénal allemand", [1976] Revue de science criminelle et de droit pénal comparé (nouvelle série)  647-659, voir  pp. 654-655;
 

___________"Introduction" in The German penal code : as amended as of December 19, 2001 / translated by Stephen Thaman ; with an  introduction by Hans-Heinrich Jescheck, Buffalo, NY : William S. Hein, 2002, lxxi, 275 p., pp. xxxiii-lxxi, at p. xlviii (series;  Series : The American series of foreign penal codes; volume 32, ISBN: 083770054X;

"The comprehensive justification involving the weighing of interests and goods which formerly was called 'meta-legal necessity,' is included in the current law as § 34 under the title 'justifiable necessity,' although the regulation of the numerous prerequisites, some of which were dependent on each other and others just on a particular case, was especially difficult.  Not only is the abstract value of the participating legal interests controlling, but also the concrete constellation of interests, whereby the weighing of the level of dangers threatening the affected legal interests against the value of the interest which will be infringed upon, is considered to be especially important.  Even where there is a clear value difference among the participating interests, however, the justification of the act of necessity still depends on a further test as to whether the act constitutes an 'appropriate means,' that is, whether it appears to be a suitable and generally acceptable resolution of the conflict according to conceptions of value recognized by the legal community."


___________"Le nouveau droit pénal mis à l'épreuve", (1985) 8 Archives de politique criminelle 153-168, see pp. 154 and 159;


JESSBERGER, Florian,  "Bad Torture?  Good Torture?  What International Criminal Lawyers May Learn from the Recent Trial of Police Officers in Germany", (2005) 3 Journal of International Criminal Justice 1059-1073; important contribution; abstract available at http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=915760 (accessed on 27 February 2008); available at http://jicj.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/3/5/1059 (accessed on 12 June 2008);

JOHNSTONE, Ian, "The Plea of 'Necessity' in International Legal Discourse: Humanitarian Intervention and Counter-terrorism", (2005) 43(2) Columbia Journal of Transnational Law 337-388; copy at the University of Ottawa, FTX Periodicals, K3 .O48;
 

JOLOWICZ, J.A., "Grounds of Justification -- English  Law", in Journées d'études sur le droit de la responsabilité (1984: Gand, Belgique), Limpens, Jean, 1910-1979, Centre interuniversitaire de droit comparé, In  memoriam Jean Limpens : Studiedagen aansprakelijkheidsrecht, Gent, 23-24 maart 1984 = In memoriam Jean Limpens : Journées d'études sur le droit de la responsabilité, Gent, 23-24 mars 1984 = In memoriam Jean Limpens : Symposium on Civil Liability, Gent, 23-24 March 1984, Antwerpen : Kluwer rechtswetenschappen, 1987, xxvii, 311 p., at pp. 223-248, and see "Necessity", at pp. 228-232 (series; Interuniversitair Centrum voor Rechtsvergelijking; 12), (Collection; Centre interuniversitaire de droit comparé; 12), ISBN: 9063212879; copy at the Library of the Supreme Court of Canada, K923 Z9 I56 1987; civil law but useful for researchers;
 

JONES, Timothy H., "The Defence of Necessity in Scots Law", (1989) The Scots Law Times (News) 253-256; copy at the library of the Supreme Court of Canada, location: Room C, U.K. Law reports, JUR;


JurisPedia, "État de nécessité (fr)", disponible à http://fr.jurispedia.org/index.php/%C3%89tat_de_n%C3%A9cessit%C3%A9_%28fr%29 (site visité le 26 juillet 2006);
 

KADISH, Sanford H., "Fifty Years of Criminal Law", (1999) 87 California Law Review 945-982, see "the 'lesser Evil' Defense" at pp. 967-968;
 

KALAMATIANOU, Phèdre, "L'état de nécessité sous l'angle du droit pénal comparé et de la justice pénale internationale", (avril-juin 2004) 56(2) Revue internationale de droit comparé 449-457;
 

KATZ, Leo, "In Defence of Necessity" in Michael J. Gorr, 1949 and Sterling Harwood, 1958-, eds., Controversies in criminal law : philosophical essays on responsibility and procedure, Boulder: Westview Press, 1992, xii, 273 p., pp. 100 to 113 approx., ISBN: 0813314836 and  0813314844 (pbk.); title noted in my research but article not consulted yet; no copy of this book in the Ottawa area libraries;
 

___________"Villainy and Felony: A Problem Concerning Criminalization", (2002) 1 Buffalo Criminal Law Review 451-482; necessity is discussed in conjunction with the author's article thesis;
 

KLIMCHUK, Dennis, "Aristotle on Necessity and Voluntariness," (2002) 19 (1) History of Philosophy Quarterly 1-19; copy at Ottawa University, MRT Periodicals, B1 .H58;
 

___________"Necessity, Deterrence, and Standing", (September 2002) 8(3) Legal Theory 339-358;
 

___________"Necessity and Restitution", (2001) 7(1) Legal Theory 59-81; deals with civil/tort law;
 

KREMNITZER, Mordechai, "The Landau Commission Report - Was the Security Service Subordinated to the Law, or the Law to the 'Needs' of the Security Service?", (1989) 23 Israel Law Review 280-344;
 

KUGLER, Itzhak, "Necessity as a Justification in Re A (Children)", (October 2004) 68(5) The Journal of Criminal Law 440-450;


KUTZ, Christopher, "Necessity, Torture and Existential Politics", ExpressO Preprint Series. Working Paper 959, 13 February 2006, 58 p.; available at  http://law.bepress.com/expresso/eps/959/  and http://law.bepress.com/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=4614&context=expresso (accessed on 17 March 2006)
 

LAMBECK, Bernard D., "Necessity and International Law: Arguments for the Legality of Civil Disobedience", (1986-87) 5 Yale Law and Policy Review  472-492; copy at the University of Ottawa, FTX Periodicals,  KF 175. Y34;
 

LAPPI-SEPPÄLÄ, Tapio, "The Doctrine of Criminal Liability and the Draft Criminal Code for Finland" in Raimo Lahti and Kimmo Nuotio, eds., Criminal Law Theory in Transition: Finnish and Comparative Perspectives/Strafrechtstheorie Im Umbruch Finnische und vergleichendePerspektiven, Helsinki:  Finish Lawyers' Publishing Company, 1992, xiv, 604 p., at pp. 214-246, see "Necessity" at pp. 237239 and "Duress and Compelling Circumstances" at pp. 241-242, ISBN: 9516405940;


LAREAU, François,  PDF "Notes sur l'article 35 du Code pénal de la République fédérale d'Allemagne -- état de nécessité en tant qu'excuse", [Ottawa], 1990, 13 p.;
 

LARGUIER, Jean, "Les limites de l'état de nécessité", [1982] Revue de science criminelle et de droit (nouvelle série) 765-772;
 

LÉAUTÉ, Jacques, "Le rôle de la faute antérieure dans le fondement de la responsabilité pénale", (1981) Recueil Dalloz Sirey de Doctrine de Jurisprudence et de Législation 295-298; chronique XLI; copie à la Bibliothèque de la Cour suprême du Canada;


LEBLOIS-HAPPE, Jocelyne, Xavier Pin et Julien Walther, "Chronique de droit pénal allemand (Période du 1er octobre 2003 au 31 décembre 2004)", (2005) 76(1-2) Revue internationale de droit pénal 139-168, et voir "Homicide volontaire, erreur de droit et impunité pénale", aux pp. 148-149;  s. 35(2) of the German Penal Code applied in the case of a battered woman who killed her sleeping husband; self defence was rejected; important contribution;
 

LEE, Youngjae, "The Defense of Necessity and Powers of Government",  Fordham  Law Legal Studies Research paper number 1234342, September 2008, 13 p., available at http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1234342 (accessed on 15 September 2008); also at http://law.huji.ac.il/upload/Lee_-__Defense_of_Necessity_-_updated.pdf, accessed on 28 June 2009, international symposium, "Criminal Law in Times of Emergency", Djanogly Hall, Mishkenot Sha'ananim, Jerusalem, 21-22 May 2008; also (June 2009) 3(2) Criminal Law and Philosophy 133-145;

LÉGAL, Alfred, "I. Droit pénal général.  La notion de délit nécessaire consacrée par la Cour de cassation", (1959) 14 Revue de science criminelle et de droit pénal comparé 111-114; copie à l'Université d'Ottawa, FTX Periodicals, KJJ 0 .R489;

___________ "I. Droit pénal général.  L'état de nécessité et la crise du logement", (1969) 24 Revue de science criminelle et de droit pénal comparé 127-130; copie à l'Université d'Ottawa, FTX Periodicals, KJJ 0 .R489;


___________ "I. Droit pénal général.  L'état de nécessité: un fait justificatif qui n'ose pas dire son nom", (1969) 24 Revue de science criminelle et de droit pénal comparé 864-866; copie à l'Université d'Ottawa, FTX Periodicals, KJJ 0 .R489;


LEGAY, Ch., "De la propriété et des devoirs qu'elle impose", (1887) 28 Revue catholique des institutions et du droit 448-463; disponible à http://books.google.com/books?id=UI4NAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA449&dq=p%C3%A9nal+%22+n%C3%A9cessit%C3%A9%22&lr=&as_drrb_is=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=&as_maxm_is=12&as_maxy_is=1957&as_brr=3&as_pt=ALLTYPES&ei=xNbqSeuyB4yuMv_1ZQ#PPA448,M1 (vérifié le 19 avril 2009);

"Ce droit du pauvre est aussi incontestable que le droit de propriété, car il repose, comme ce dernier sur une nécessité, la nécessité de conserver sa vie.

Nos théologiens et nos anciens jurisconsultes ont très habilement distingué les biens nécessaires des biens superflus et hautement maintenu le droit du pauvre. La doctrine que nous essayons de soutenir a été clairement affirmée par eux dans la solution de cette question fameuse: Est-il permis à un homme qui se trouve dans une extrême (1) nécessité de s'emparer pour subvenir à ses besoins d'une
--------

(1) 1l y a nécessité et nécessité. Les moralistes et les jurisconsultes distinguent trois sortes de nécessités : l'extrême nécessité, la nécessité grave et la nécessité commune. On entend par extrême nécessité la sitna- tion d'un homme en danger, soit de perdre la vie, soit de perdre un membre essentiel, ou qui court le risque de contracter, soit un mal inguérissable, soit une maladie tout an moins dangereuse, et qui n'a pas à sa disposition les moyens de se délivrer du péril dont il est menacé. Tout ce que nous disons ne s'applique qu'à l'extrême nécessité.

chose dont un autre est propriétaire. Les philosophes pharisiens de ces derniers temps répondent négativement. Nos théologiens, nos anciens jurisconsultes déclarent, au contraire, que l'homme qui est dans une extrême nécessité a le droit de prendre, là où il les trouve, les choses qui lui sont nécessaires pour soutenir sa vie. Ils font exception à cette règle dans le cas où celui qui serait dépouillé se trouverait, lui aussi, dans une extrême nécessité, parce qu'alors on ne lui disputerait pas seulement une part de ce qui a été donné à tous, mais on lui arracherait la vie. De terribles crimi- nalistes comme Jousse et Muyart de Vouglans n'hésitaient pas sur ce point. Cette doctrine, du reste, s'affirme dans certains codes. L'article 166 de la Caroline formule ce droit en termes précis et il est également consacré par l'article 1115 du code prussien." (pp. 449-450)

LEGEAIS, Raymond,  "L'état de nécessité ou le rôle créateur de la jurisprudence en droit pénal français" dans Études de droit contemporain (nouvelle série), Paris: Les Éditions de l'Éparge, 1970, vii, 432 p., aux pp. 381-387 (Collection; Travaux et recherches de l'Institut de droit comparé de Paris, vol. 23); avec le même titre dans A la recherche d'un nouveau droit fondamental à travers le droit civil, le droit pénal et le droit comparé. Mélanges offerts à Raymond Legeais, Paris, Cujas, 2003, aux pp. 39-46;
 

LEGROS, Robert, "1830-1980.  Droit pénal et société", (1983) 14(1-2) Revue belge d'histore contemporaine 177-201; disponible à http://www.flwi.ugent.be/btng-rbhc/pdf/BTNG-RBHC,%2014,%201983,%201-2,%20pp%20177-201.pdf (site visité le 11 janvier 2007); sur l'état de nécessité, voir la p. 189;


LENCKNER, Theodor, "The Principle of Interest Balancing as a Basis of Justification", [1986] Brigham Young University Law Review 645-668; also published in A. Eser et al., eds.,  Justification and Excuse: Comparative Perspectives, vol. 1, Dobbs Ferry (New York), Transnational Juris Publications, 1987, ISBN: 0929179226, at pp. 493-522; very important contribution to the subject -- one of the best articles on the topic; available at http://lawreview.byu.edu/archives/1986/3/len.pdf (accessed on 24 March 2008);


LEPSIUS, Oliver, "Human Dignity and the Downing of Aircraft: The German Federal Constitutional Court Strikes Down a Prominent Anti-Terrorism Provision in the New Air-Transport Security Act", (September 2006) 9 German Law Journal; available at http://www.germanlawjournal.com/article.php?id=756 (accessed on 27 June 2009);


LEREBOURS-PIGEONNIÈRE, Paul, "Rapport de la première section sur l'état de nécessité", (1901) 24(2) Revue pénitentiaire et de droit pénal. Bulletin de la Société générale des prisons 329-338; titre noté dans mes recherches mais document non consulté (source http://www.criminocorpus.cnrs.fr/article.php3?id_article=30, site visité le 25 août 2007);


LE VAY, Andrew J., "Urgent Compassion: Medical Marijuana, Prosecutorial  Discretion and the Medical Necessity Defense", (2000) 41(3) Boston Colllege Law Review  699-753; copy at Ottawa University, KFM 2469 .B66  Location: FTX Periodicals;
 

LEVIN, Debbe E., Note, "Necessity as a Defence to a Charge of Criminal Trespass in an Abortion Clinic", (1979) 48 University of Cincinnati Law Review 501-516;
 

LEVITIN, Joel H., "Putting the Government on Trial: The Necessity Defense and Social Change", (1987) 33 Wayne Law Review 1221-1256;
 

LEVY, Sharon, "The Lesser of two Evils: A Contextual View of the English Case of the Conjoined Twins", (2003) 22 Medicine and Law 1-9; copy at Ottawa University, RA 1001 .M423, FTX location;


LIMPENS, Jean, Robert M. Kruithof and Anne Meinertzhagen-Limpens, "Liability for One’s Own Act", in André Tunc, Chief Editor,  International Encyclopedia of Comparative Law, volume XI, Torts, Part 1, Chapter 2, pp. 2-2 to 2-140, and see in particular, "Grounds of Justifications", at pp. 2-167 to 2-192, and for necessity, pp. 2-171 to 2-181 and 2-192, Tübingen: Mohr J.C.B (Paul Siebeck) and The Hague/Boston/London: The Hague: Martin Nijhoff, 1983, ISBN: 3166445420 (Mohr) and 9024727871 (Nijhoff); copy at the Library of Parliament, Ottawa, Br. B K530 I58 V. II pt. 1; tort law but very useful for researchers, e.g., the German civil code; self-help is also discussed  but separately from necessity, at pp. 2-187 to 2-193; importante contribution;
 

LIPPMAN, Matthew R., "Civil Resistance: Revitalizing International Law In The Nuclear Age", (1992) 13 Whittier Law Review 17-105, and see in particular, pp. 77-96;  


__________"Conundrums of Armed Conflict: Criminal Defences to Violation of Human Rights", (1996-97) 15 Dickinson Journal of Internial Law 1-111, and see "Necessity", at pp. 59-71;


___________"First Strike Nuclear Weapons and the Justifiability of Civil Resistance under International Law", (1988) 2(2) Temple International and Comparative Law Journal 155-181; copy at Ottawa University, FTX Periodicals, Periodicals K 24 .T45;
 

__________"The Necessity Defense and Political Protest", (1990) 26 Criminal Law Bulletin 317-356; copy at the University of Ottawa, KF 9202 .C745  Location FTX Periodicals;


__________"Reflections on Non-Violent Resistance and the Necessity Defense", (1988-89) 11 Houston Journal of Internationmal Law 277-305;


LUBAN, David, "Liberalism, Torture, and the Ticking Bomb", in In Karen J. Greenberg, ed., The Torture Debate in America, Cambridge/New York: Cambridge University Press, xviii, 414 p., at pp. 35-83, and see "The Necessity Defense", at pp. 65-67, ISBN: 9780521857925, 0521857929, 9780521674614 (pbk.) and 0521674611 (pbk.); copy at the Library of Parliament JC 599 U5 T67;

LUCKSTEAD, Erica, "Choice of Evils Defences in Texas: Necessity, Duress, and Public Duty", (1982) 10 American Journal of Criminal Law 179-213;
 

LUGOSI, Charles I., "Playing God: Mary Must Die So Jodie May Live Longer", (2001) 17(2) Issues in Law & Medicine 123-165;
 

MAKINEN, Virpi, and Heikki Pihlajamäki,  1961-, "The Individualization of Crime in Medieval Canon Law", (October 2004) 65(4) Jurnal of the History of Ideas 525-542, and see p. 529;
 

MALLIN, Michael G., "In Warm Blood: Some Historical and Procedural Aspects of Regina v. Dudley and Stephens", (1966-67) 34 University of Chicago Law Review 387-407;
 

MANNHEIM, Hermann, "Mens Rea in German and English Criminal Law  [Part I, II and III]", (1935) Journal of Comparative Legislation and International Law (3rd series) vol. 17, pp. 82-101 and 236-250; (1936) vol. 18, pp. 78- 93, see pp. 241-244;
 

MARSHALL, S.E., "Life and Death on a Plank: Ripstein and Kant", (2005) 2 Ohio State Journal of Criminal Law 435-440; available at http://moritzlaw.osu.edu/osjcl/issue2_articles/Marshall-PDF3-17-05.pdf (accessed on 30 April 2005);
 

MARTIN, Shaun P., "The Radical Necessity Defence", (Summer 2005) 73(4) University of Cincinnati Law Review 1527- 1607; available at http://www.law.uc.edu/lawreview/uclaw73pdf/1527martin.pdf (accessed on 13 November 2005);
 

McCAULEY, Finbarr, "Beckford and the Criminal Law Defences", (1990) 41 Northern Ireland Legal Quarterly 158-166, on necessity, see p. 164;
 

____________"Necessity and Duress in Criminal Law: The Confluence of Two Great Tributaries", (1998) 33 The Irish Jurist 120-186;


"Medical Necessity Defense", available at http://www.norml.org/index.cfm?Group_ID=3410 (accessed on 10 April 2008);
 

MICHALOWSKI, Sabine, "Reversal of Fortune -- Re A (Conjoined Twins) and Beyond: Who Should Make Treatment Decisions on Behalf of Young Children?", (2001) 9 Health law Journal 149-169; available at http://www.law.ualberta.ca/centres/hli/pdfs/hlj/v9/michalowskifrm.pdf (accessed on 27 February 2008);


___________"Sanctity of life -- are some lives more sacred than others?", (2002) 22(3) Legal Studies 377-397; see "Necessity" at pp. 386-394;

"[Abstract] Court decisions concerning the life and death of patients become more and more frequent in the context of medical practice.  One of the most controversial decision in this area in recent years has been the decision of the Court of Appeal in Re A (Conjoined Twins: Medical Treatment), authorising the separation of conjoined twins.  This paper will argue that the decision was flawed both on legal and moral grounds and that its potential implications for future cases are more far-reaching than the judgment itself suggests." (p. 377)


"The 'Mignonette' Case",  (1884) 7 The Legal News 375-378; available at http://books.google.com/books?id=z_YuAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA376&dq=%22CRIMINAL+CODE+BILL+%22+defence+of+property+date:1700-1900&lr=&as_brr=3&ei=n0I-Sf2ZCYWSMu2urO0J#PPA375,M1 (accessed on 9 December 2008);


MILHIZER, Captain Eugene R., "Necessity and the Military Justice System", (Summer 1988) 121 Military Law Review 95-124; available at  http://www.loc.gov/rr/frd/Military_Law/Military_Law_Review/pdf-files/275075%7E1.pdf (accessed on 18 December 2003);
 

MILLER, John, "Necessity in New Zealand", (November 1992) New Zealand Law Journal 383-387;
 

MOKHTAR, Aly, "Human Rights Obligations v. Derogations: Article 15 of the European Convention on Human Rights", (2004) 8(1) The International Journal of Human Rights 65-87;  

MOORE, Michael S., "Torture and the Balance of Evils", (1989) 23 Israel Law Review 280-344;
 

MORAWETZ, Thomas, "Justification: 4. Necessity" in Sanford H. Kadish, ed., Encyclopedia of Crime and Justice, vol. 3, New York: Free Press, 1983, pp. 957-961, ISBN:0029181100 (for the set of 4 volumes);
 

MORISHITA, Tadashi, "État de nécessité en droit pénal  japonais", (1971) 26 Revue de science criminelle et de droit pénal comparé 99-103;
 

MUELLER, Gerhard O.W., "The German Draft Criminal Code 1960 - An Evaluation in Terms of American Criminal  Law", (1961) Current Problems in Criminal Law 25-77, see pp. 56-57;
 

NEELY, David E., "Legal Necessity and Civil Disobedience: Preventing the Greater Harms of War and Apartheid", (1986) 74 Illinois Bar Journal 596-600;
 

"Note: Justification and Excuse in the Judaic and Common Law: The Exculpation of Defendant Charged with Homicide", (1977) 52 New York University Law Review 599-628; Research Note: on necessity, see pp. 603-607 and 614-617;
 

Notes, "And Forgive Them Their Trespasses: Applying the Defense of Necessity to the Criminal Conduct of the Newsgatherer", (1989-90) 103 Harvard Law Review  890-905;
 

"Notes - Cults, Deprogrammers, and the Necessity Defense",  (1981) 80 Michigan Law Review 271-311;
 

"Notes.  Necessity as a Defense" (1921) 21 Columbia Law Review 71-75 (no author cited);
 

"Notes: The Necessity Defense to Prison Escape after United States v. Bailey", (1979) 65 Virginia Law Review 359-376;
 

NOTI, Adav, Note, "The Uplifted Knife: Morality, Justification, and the Choice-of-Evils Doctrine", (2003) New York University Law Review1859-1886; copy at Ottawa University, KFN 69 .N493  Location: FTX Periodicals;
 

NOURSE, V.F., "Reconceptualizing criminal law defenses", (2002-2003) 151University of Pennsylvania 1691-1746;
 

O'CONNOR, Vivienne and Colette Rausch, eds., with Hans Joerg Albrecht and Goran Klemencic, Model codes for post-conflict criminal justice, Washington, D.C. : United States Institute of Peace Press, 2007-,  and see "Necessity" at pp. 79-80, ISBN: 9781601270115 (pbk. : alk. paper); 1601270119 (pbk. : alk. paper); 9781601270122 (hardcover : alk. paper);  1601270127 (hardcover : alk. paper); available at http://books.google.com/books?id=FL3nJkyxDBkC&pg=PR23&dq=%22comparative++criminal+law%22&lr=&as_brr=3&ei=XSDxSPaCIoO6yAT4-aziAw&sig=ACfU3U0jIcI2f4BPr_OTvi5RqgnWG9DcMg#PPA78,M1 (accessed on 11 October 2008);
 

OFFERMANS, Marc, «La Justification de l'homicide de tiers Innocents, dans l'ancien droit» dans Licéité en droit positif et Références légales aux valeurs, Contribution à l'étude du règlement juridique des conflits de valeurs en droit pénal, public et international, Xes Journées d'études juridiques Jean Dabin organisées par l'Unité de droit pénal,  Bruxelles : Bruylant, 1982, 706 p., aux pp. 83-114 (Collection; Bibliothèque de la Faculté de droit de  l'Université catholique de Louvain; XIV),  ISBN:  2802703013;


OLESON, J.C., " 'Drown the World' Imperfect Necessity and Total Cultural Revolution", (2007) 3 Unbound: Harvard Journal of Legal Left 19-104; available at http://legalleft.org/wp-content/uploads/2007/07/3unb019-oleson.pdf (accessed on 26 February 2008);
 

O'REAGAN, R.S., "The Defence of Sudden or Extraordinary  Emergency in the Griffith Code", (1985) 9 Criminal  Law Journal 347-353;
 

___________"Private Defence, Duress and Necessity from a Code Perspective", (1991) 15 Criminal Law Journal 151-152;

"Necessity...

...in two Australian jurisdictions, Queensland abnd Western Australia, such a defence in the form of a defence of sudden or extraordinary emergency in s. 25 of the Criminal Codes has been available for many years and there is now a similar provision in the Northern Territory Code (s. 33)" (p. 152)

ORLAND, Leonard, "Soviet Justice in the Gorbachev Era: The 1988 Draft Fundamental Principles of Criminal Legislation" (1989) 4 Connecticut Journal of International Law 513-576; see pp. 535 and 550-551 on "extreme necessity";
 

OST, Suzanne, "Euthanasia and the Defence of Necessity: Advocating a More Appropriate Legal Response", [2005] Criminal Law Review 355-370;
 

OTSUKA, Michael, "Kamm on the morality of Killing", (1997) 108 Ethics 197-207; copy at the University of Ottawa, BJ 1 .I6  Location MRT Periodicals;


OWOADE, M.A., "Necessity, duress and coercion in relation to homicide", (1986) 12(1-2) Indian Socio-Legal Journal 115-136; title noted in my research but article not consulted; no copy in the libraries covered by the AMICUS catalogue of Library and Archives Canada (verification of 12 November 2006);

PADFIELD, Nicola M., "Duress, Necessity and the Law Commission",  [1992] Criminal Law Review 778-789;
 

PALEY, J.M., "Compulsion, Fear and the Doctrine of Necessity",  (1971) Acta Juridica 205-247;
 

PARK, Shellie K., "Severing the Bond of Life: When Conflicts of Interest Fail to Recognize the Value of Two Lives", (2002-2003) 25 University of Hawai'i Law Review 157-198;
 

PARFIT, Derek, "Innumerate Ethics", (1977-78) 7 Philosophy  & Public Affairs 285-301;
 

PARRY, John T., "The Virtue of Necessity: Reshaping Culpability and the Rule of Law",  (1999) 36 Houston Law Review 397-469;


PARRY, John T. and Welsh S. White, "Interrogating Suspected Terrorists: Should Torture be an Option?", (2001-2002) 63 University of Pittsburgh Law Review 743-766, and see "Torture and Necessity", at pp. 757-765;


PASCOE, Daniel, "Murder and the Defence of Necessity", ANU College of Law Research Paper No. 08-07, 4 June 2007, available at SSRN: http://ssrn.com/abstract=1129090  (accessed on 8 May 2008);

PAULSEN, M.S., "The Constitution of Necessity", (2004) 79(4) The Notre Dame Law Review 1257-1297; not on criminal law but constitutional law;
 

PEARSON, James O., "`Choice of Evils', Necessity, Duress, or Similar Defense to State or Local Criminal Charges Based on Acts of Public Protest", (1992) 3 American Law Reports Annotations and Cases (5d), 521-589;
 

PENNINGTON, Kenneth, "Innocent III and the Ius commune" in Grundlagen des Rechts: Festschrift für Peter Landau zum 65. Geburtstag, herausgegeben von Richard Helmholz, Paul Mikat, Jörg Müller, Michael Stolleis (Rechts- und Staatswissenschaftliche Veröffentlichungen der Görres-Gesell-schaft, NF 91; Paderborn: Verlag Ferdinand Schöningh, 2000), at pp. 349-366; available at  http://faculty.cua.edu/pennington/Medieval%20Papacy/InnocentIuscom.htm (accessed on 3 uly 2003);


___________"Legal Maxims and the Ius commune -- Necessitas legem non habet (Necessity recognizes no law", available at http://faculty.cua.edu/pennington/Law508/Maxims1.html (accessed on 16 January 2009);

  Gratian formulated the maxim in a dictum of the first recension of his Concordia discordantium canonum (ca. 1130-1140) (C.1 q.1 dictum post capitulum 39):
"Quia enim necessitas non habet legem, set ipsa sibi facit legem (Because necessity negates law, but necessity itself can make law)."


PERKINS, Rollin M., "Impelled Perpetration Restated" (1981) 33 Hastings Law Journal 403-424;


PETERS, Edward N., "[Book Review] MEDIEVAL CHURCH LAW AND THE ORIGINS OF THE WESTERN LEGAL TRADITION: A TRIBUTE TO KENNETH PENNINGTON. Edited by Wolfgang Müller & Mary Sommar. Catholic University of America 2006. Twenty six scholarly articles in four languages. Pp. approx. 400. $79.95. ISBN: 0-813-21462-9. (2007) 23 Journal of Law and Religion 101-104; available at http://law.hamline.edu/files/PetersRev.pdf (accessed on 16 January 2009);

  "Finally, Franck Roumy’s essay L’origine et la diffusion de l’adage canonique Necessitas non habet legem was written in partial response to an observation by Pennington that, curiously, the history of the legal expression, “Necessity knows no law,” which is so widely honored in western jurisprudence, had yet to be written. While few scholars claim to offer a comprehensive treatment of questions any more, Roumy’s study of the ancient and medieval roots of this principle of the Ius Commune was, in short, excellent. Roumy finds the adage
quietly sitting in Roman law (in the works of the forgotten jurist Publilius Syrus), sees it being applied by Pope Leo the Great, and findsit recognized by Gratian. Moreover, he shows the principle being honored not only in canon law, but in theological treatises, philosophical tracts, and even in liturgical law.

      Roumy’s study is an excellent note by which to summarize this review, because it epitomizes the high scholarship, clear writing, and ample documentation that characterizes these studies." (p. 104)

PHANG, Andrew, "Conjoined Twins: The Limits of Reason and the Transcendent Hope - Part One and Two", (2001) number 146 Law & Justice: The Christian Review 38-56 and number 147 Law & Justice: The Christian Review 89-113, see "The Defence of Necessity" at pp. 98-101;
 

POMPE, W., "La responsabilité en droit pénal", (1952) 23 Revue internationale de droit pénal 303-336; sur la contrainte et nécessité, voir les pp. 310-320; copie à la bibliothèque de droit de l'Université d'Ottawa,  FTX Periodicals  K 5012 .R47;
 

PONGRATZ, Miklos, "Constitutional Law -- Medical Marihuana and the Medical Necessity Defense in the Aftermath of United States v. Oakland Cannabis Buyers' Cooperative", (2003) 25 Western New England  Law Review  147-192;
 

PRADEL, Jean, "Présentation générale du Projet de Code pénal européen sur les délits d'affaires (euros-délits)", (2003) Revue pénitentiaire et de droit pénal 277-308;

"CODE PÉNAL EUROPÉEN

PARTIE GÉNÉRALE [...]

Art. 9.   Etat de nécessité justificatif

Est justifiée l'action de celui qui réalise un fait typique par une action nécessaire dans le but d'éviter un danger potentiel sur la vie, la santé, la liberté, la propriété ou tout autre bien juridique, lorsque examinant l'ensemble des circonstances, l'intérêt préservé est supérieur et que l'action apparaît adéquate pour éviter le danger.
 

Art. 10.   Etat de nécessité excluant la faute

Agit sans culpabilité celui qui a un comportement illégal avec l'objectif d'éviter un danger pour la vie, la santé, la liberté ou celle d'un tiers proche, lorsque le dommage causé n'apparaît pas disproportionné en comparaison avec ce qui a été évité et que l'auteur n'était pas soumis à l'obligation d'avoir un comportement conforme au droit.  Il y a culpabilité si l'auteur a accepté consciemment le danger sans être juridiquement obligé ou autorisé." (pp. 289 et 292, rédigé par Dannacker)


PRICE, T.W., "Defence, Necessity and Acts of Authority",  (1954) 1 Butterworth's South African Law Review 1-35;
 

The Queen v. Dudley and Stephens (1884) 14 Q.B.D. [Queen's Bench Division] 273-288, 15 Cox C.C. 624 (1843);
 

QUIGLEY, William P., "The necessity defense in civil disobedience cases: bring in the jury", (2003) 38(1) New England Law Review 3-72; copy available at http://www.loyno.edu/~quigley/Articles/articlecivil_disobedience_and_publi.pdf   (accessed on 29 December 2005);

RADBRUCH, G.L., "Jurisprudence in the Criminal Law", (1936) 18 Journal of Comparative Legislation and International Law (3rd series) 212-225, see pp. 219-220;
 

RAKOWSKI, Eric, "Taking and Saving Lives", (1993) 93 Columbia Law Review 1063-1156;
 

RAKOVER, Nahum, 1932-, "Self-defence and Necessity" in  Jewish Law Association. International Congress (7th : 1992 : Paris, France), The Paris conference volume / edited by S.M. Passamaneck and M. Finley, Atlanta, Ga. : Scholars Press, 1994, viii, 245 p., ISBN: 1555408990;


REED, Alan, " Court of Appeal.  Necessity: Supply of Cannabis for medical Purpose.  R v Quayle and Othres [2005] EWCA Crim 1415, The Times (22 June 2005)", (December 2005) 69(6) The Journal of Criminal Law 464-468;
 

REEVE, Benjamin, "Necessity: The Right to Present a Recognized Defense", (1985-86) 21 New England Law Review 779-815;


Reg. v. Dudley and Stephen, (1885) 53 The Law Times Reports 107; available at http://books.google.com/books?id=8SgyAAAAIAAJ&pg=RA3-PA22-IA3&dq=criminal+code+stephen+date:1876-1888&lr=&as_brr=0&ei=kX3sSMmFBI3IMvPc9YUF#PRA3-PA20,M1 (accessed on 8 October 2008);
 

RICHARD, André, «État de nécessité, contrainte morale et légitime défense», Gazette du Palais, 1952, 2ième semestre, doctrine pp. 14-15.
 

RICHARDS, David A.J., "Human Rights and the Moral Foundations of  the Substantive Criminal Law", (1979) 13 Georgia Law Review 1395-1446, at pp. 1437-1439;
 

RIPSTEIN, Arthur, "In Extremis", (2005) 2 Ohio State Journal of Criminal Law 415-434; available at  http://moritzlaw.osu.edu/osjcl/issue2_articles/Ripstein-PDF-3-17-05.pdf (accessed on 30 April 2005);
 

ROBINSON, Paul H., 1948-,"Causing The Conditions of One's Own Defense. A Study in the Limits of Theory in Criminal Law Doctrine", (1985) 71 Virginia Law Review 1-63;
 

___________"In Defense of the Model Penal Code: A Reply to Professor Fletcher", (1998-99) 2 Buffalo Criminal Law Review 25-43 (Symposium "Toward a New Federal Criminal Code");
 

___________"Letter to the Editor [about the Report of the Landau Inquiry Commission]", (1989) 23 Israel Law Review 189-191;
 

ROGERS, Jonathan, “Necessity, private defence and the killing of Mary”, [July 2001] The Criminal Law Review 515-526; copy at Ottawa University, KD 7862 .C734  Location: FTX Periodicals; deals with the case of the conjoined twins;
 

ROMAN, D., "Délivré par la pauvreté: étude sur la notion pénale de nécessité", (mai 2000) L'Astrée 10; note de recherche bibliographique sur le périodique: L'Astrée,  Paris : Association du DEA de droit pénal et politique criminelle en Europe, 1997-, Notes: Trimestriel, ISSN: 1284-5094; titre noté dans ma recherche mais pas encore consulté; aucune copie dans les bibliothèques au Canada;


ROUMY, Franck, "L'origine et la diffusion de l'adage canonique Necessitas non habet legem (VIIIe--XIIIe s.)",  aux pp. 301 à  319, in Wolfgang P. Müller and Mary E. Sommar, eds., Medieval Church Law and the Origins of the Western Legal Tradition: A Tribute to Kenneth Pennington, Washington (D.C.): Catholic University Press, 2006, xv, 404 p., à la p. 301,  ISBN-10:  0813214629, and ISBN-13:  9780813214627; see the Table of Contents at http://cuapress.cua.edu/books/frontmatter/MUCL.pdf  (accessed on 2 July 2007);  disponible en partie à http://books.google.com/books?id=9neGgsfV8-kC&printsec=frontcover&dq=subject:%22Religion+/+Christian+Church+/+Canon+%26+Ecclesiastical+Law%22&lr=&as_drrb_is=q&as_minm_is=0
&as_miny_is=&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=1958&as_brr=3&ei=HwoES5-aGpHYyQTV_8GQBA#v=onepage&q=&f=false (vérifié le 20 novembre 2009);
 

ROUSSIER-THÉAUX, J., Compte-rendu du livre de Stephan Kutner :  Kanonistische schuldlehre von Gratian bis auf die Dekretalen Gregors IX, systematisch auf grund der handschriftlichen quellen dargestellt, (1937) 16 Revue historique de droit français et étranger 701-708; texte en français; on traite de la nécessité aux pp. 705-708;
 

ROUX, J.A., "Rapport sur l'état de nécessité et le délit nécessaire", (1900) 24 Revue pénitentiaire (Bulletin Société générale des prisons) 1411-1423 suivi de discussions à :  (1900) 24 Revue pénitentiaire (Bulletin Société générale des prisons) 1424-1450 et (1901) 25 Revue pénitentiaire (Bulletin Société générale des prisons) 47-89 et 329-338  (on retrouve parmis les participants, les professeurs Garçon, Tarde, Garraud et Saleilles); disponible PDF ici; pdf et internet complétés le 16 septembre 2007;


RUSSELL, Steve, "Necessity as a Defense to Criminal Liability",  in Richard A. Wright and J. Mitchell Miller, eds., Encyclopedia of Criminology,  Scarborough : Routledge/Taylor & Francis, 2004, vol. 2, at pp. 1027 (1 page only); copy at the Library of the Supreme Court of Canada, HV 61017 E53 2005 REF;
 

___________"Status of the Texas Necessity Defense in Abortion Clinic Trespass Cases Assuming the Demise of Roe v. Wade", (1989-90) 17 American Journal of Criminal Law 1-17;


RUSSIAN FEDERATION, The Civil Code of the Russian Federation (with the Additions and Amendments of February 20, August 12, 1996, October 24, 1997, July 8, December 17, 1999, April 16, May 15, November 26, 2001, March 21, November 14, 26, 2002, January 10, March 26, November 11, December 23, 2003);

Article 1067. The Infliction of Injury in the State of Absolute Necessity

 Injury inflicted in the state of absolute necessity, that is for the removal of danger threatening the inflictor of injury himself or other persons, if this danger could not be eliminated under the given circumstances with other means, shall be redressed by the person who has caused this injury.

 Taking into account the circumstances under which such injury was inflicted, the court of law may impose the obligation of its redress on a third person in whose interest the inflictor of injury acted, or release this thgird person and the inflictor of injury from the redress of this injury in full or in part. (available at http://www.russian-civil-code.com/PartII/SectionIV/Subsection1/Chapter59.html, accessed on 14 April 2009);


RYU, Paul K., "Discussion of Structure and Theory", (1976) 24 American Journal of Comparative Law 602-613, see pp. 604-605 on German law;


SALAND, Per, "International Criminal Law Principles" in Roy S. Lee, ed., The International Criminal Court: The Making of the Rome Statute: Issues, Negotiations, Results, The Hague/London/Boston: Kluwer Law International, 1999, xxxv, 657 p., at pp. 189-216, ISBN: 904111212X (hardcover) and 904111243X (pbk.); see "XII. Article 31, Grounds for excluding criminal responsibility" at pp. 206-210; copy athe Library of the Supreme Court of Canada, Ottawa;
 

SAVATIER, René, "L'état de nécessité et la responsabilité civile extra-contractuelle" dans Études de Droit Civil À la Mémoire de Henri Capitant, Paris : libr. Dalloz, 1939, lx, 917 p., aux pp. 729-752; copie à la bibliothèque de la Cour suprême du Canada; copie à l'Université d'Ottawa, KJV 450 .E838 1939 FTX;
 

SCALIOTTI, Massimo, 1959-, "Defences before the International Criminal Court: Substantive grounds for excluding criminal responsibility – Part 1", (2001) 1
International Criminal Law Review 111-172, see "Duress/Necessity", at pp. 142-158;
 

SCHADEWALDT, Hans, «L'odyssée du "Radeau de la Méduse" - Un exemple classique de "l'état de nécessité"»,  (1969) 23 Revue internationale de criminologie et de police technique 119-134;
 

SCHULKIND, Laura J., "Notes: Applying the Necessity Defense to Civil Disobedience Cases", (1989) 64 New York University Law Review 79-112;
 

SCHULTZ, Paul, "The Necessity Defense Revisited: An Examination Through the Case of Regina v. Dudley & Stephens and President Bush’s Order to Shoot Down Hijacked Aircraft in the Wake of September 11, 2001", 3(2) Rutgers Journal Law and Religion [9]; available at  http://www-camlaw.rutgers.edu/publications/law-religion/paul%20final%20draft.pdf (accessed on 2 February 2004) and http://www-camlaw.rutgers.edu/publications/law-religion/articles/RJLR_3_2_9.pdf (accessed on 3 July 2006);


SCHWARTZ, Stephen S., "Is There a Common Law Necessity Defense in Federal Criminal Law?", (summer 2008)  75(3) University of Chicago Law Review 1259-1293; available at http://lawreview.uchicago.edu/issues/archive/v75/75_3/Schwartz75-3.pdf (accessed on 23 November 2008);
 

SEGEV, Re'em, "The Concept of Lesser Evil", 1 March 2004, 82 p., (Series; ExpressO Preprint Series; Working Paper; 153); available at http://law.bepress.com/expresso/eps/153/ (accessed on 20 August 2005);
 

SENFTLE, Patrick G. , Comment, "The Necessity Defense in Abortion Clinic Trespass Cases", (1987-88) 32 St. Louis University Law Journal 523-547;
 

SHAPIRO, David, Paul Butler, Alan Dershowitz, Frank Easterbrook, Alex Kozinski, Cass Sunstein, and Robin West, "The Case of the Speluncean Explorers: A Fifth Anniversary Symposium", (1999) 112 Harvard Law Review 1834-1923; copy at Ottawa University, KFM 2469 .H457  Location  FTX Periodicals;
 

SHAW, Joseph, "Intentions and Trolleys", (January 2006) 56 The Philosophical Quarterly  63-83;

SHELDON, Sally  and StephenWilkinson, "Conjoined twins: the legality and ethics of sacrifice", (1997) 5 Medical Law Review 149-171; title noted in my research but article not consulted yet;


___________ " 'On the Sharpest Horns of a Dilemma': Re A (Conjoined Twins)", (Autumn 2001) 9 Medical Law Review 201-207;
 

SHIELS, Robert S., "The Defence of Necessity and Citizen Interveners", (15 February 2002, issue 6) The Scots Law Times (News) 47-49; copy at the library of the Supreme Court of Canada, location: Room C, U.K. Law reports, JUR;

"Earlier uncertainties about the existence of a general defence of necessity have been removed by a recent decision of the High Court of Judiciary.  In this note Dr Shiels outlines some of the Judicial views on the growing prevalence of citizen interveners." (p. 47)


SIMEONE, Joseph J., " 'Survivors' of the Eternal Sea: A True Story", (2001) 45 Saint Louis University Law Journal 1123-1149;
 

SIMON, Jonathan, "Teaching Criminal Law in an Era of Governing Through Crime", (2004) 48 Saint Louis University Law Journal 1313-1335;

SIMONS, Kenneth W., "Exploring the Intricacies of the Lesser Evils Defense", (November 2005) 24(6) Law and Philosophy 645-679;
 

SLIEDREGT, Elies van, "Defences in International Criminal Law", 44 p., see "Duress", at pp. 14-21 and "Military Necessity" at pp. 25-27, available at  http://www.isrcl.org/Papers/Sliedregt.pdf (accessed on 11 August 2004); important contribution; "Paper to be presented at the conference Convergence of Criminal Justice Systems: Building Bridges Bridging the Gap, The International Society For the Reform of Criminal Law.  17th International Conference, 25 August 2003 -- not for quotation."; available at "This paper is based on the PhD research recently published at T.M.C. Asser Press: E. van Sliedregt, The Criminal Responsibility of Individuals for Violations of International Humanitarian Law, The Hague, 2003"; research note: this book has been ordered by Ottawa University, Law Faculty, on 20 April 2004 (11 August 2004);
 

SMITH, A.T.H., "On Actus Reus and Mens Rea" in P.R. Glazebrook, ed., Reshaping the Criminal Law, London: Stevens & Sons, 1978, xii, 492 p. at pp. 95-107, see on necessity pp. 100-101 and 106, ISBN: 042045540X;
 

SPENCER, J.R., Book Review, "Cannabilism and the Criminal Law -- A.W. Brian Simpson", (1984) 51 University of Chicago Law Review 1265-1272; copy at Ottawa University, KF 175 .U55  Location  FTX Periodicals;
 

STACY, Tom, "Acts, Omissions, and the Necessity of Killing Innocents", (2002) 29(3) American Journal of Criminal Law 481-520; copy at the library of the Supreme Court of Canada, Ottawa; copy at University of Ottawa, KF 9202 .A427, FTX Periodicals;
 

STAVSKY, Mark M., "The Doctrine of State Necessity in Pakistan", (1983) 16 Cornell International Law Journal 341-394;
 

STEINMETZ, Rabbi Chaim, "Separating Conjoined Twins", Jewish Law Commentary -- Examining Halacha, Jewish Issues and Secular Law; available at  http://www.jlaw.com/Commentary/cojoinedtwins.html (accessed on 4 June 2005);
 

STEPHEN, Herbert, "Homicide by Necessity", (1885) 1 Law Quarterly Review 51-61; available at http://books.google.com/books?id=QdsuAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA55&dq=stephen+code+date:1877-1885&lr=&as_brr=0&ei=NRjvSMqkHJKQzQTnifWlAw#PPA51,M1 (accessed on 10 October 2008);
 

STEPHEN, James Fitzjames, Sir, 1829-1894, "The Criminal Code (1879)"PDF, (January-June 1880) 7 The Nineteenth Century -- A Monthly Review 136-160, and see pp.155-157;

STOLL, Hans, "Grounds of Justification as a Defence to Liability -- German Law", in Journées d'études sur le droit de la responsabilité (1984: Gand, Belgique), Limpens, Jean, 1910-1979, Centre interuniversitaire de droit comparé, In  memoriam Jean Limpens : Studiedagen aansprakelijkheidsrecht, Gent, 23-24 maart 1984 = In memoriam Jean Limpens : Journées d'études sur le droit de la responsabilité, Gent, 23-24 mars 1984 = In memoriam Jean Limpens : Symposium on Civil Liability, Gent, 23-24 March 1984, Antwerpen : Kluwer rechtswetenschappen, 1987, xxvii, 311 p., at pp. 207-221, and see "Necessity", at pp. 210-213 (series; Interuniversitair Centrum voor Rechtsvergelijking; 12), (Collection; Centre interuniversitaire de droit comparé; 12), ISBN: 9063212879; copy at the Library of the Supreme Court of Canada, K923 Z9 I56 1987; civil law but useful for researchers;
 

SUGARMAN, Stephen D., "The “Necessity” Defense And The Failure Of Tort Theory: The Case Against Strict Liability For Damages Caused While Exercising Self-Help In An Emergency", 2005, 153 p.; civil law, available at http://www.law.berkeley.edu/faculty/sugarmans/C__TEMP_Mozilla_Cache_A08652B0d01.pdf (accessed on 10 December 2005);
 

SULLIVAN, J. Thomas., "The Defense of Necessity in Texas: Legislative Invention Come of Age", (1979) 16 Houston Law Review 333-364;


SULLIVAN, Robert, "Restraints on the Treatment of Innocent Persons in State Responses to Large-scale, Terrorist  Violence : The Position  in the United Kingdom", 20 p.; available at http://law.huji.ac.il/upload/Sullivan_Restraints_on_the_Treatment_of_Innocent_Persons_in.pdf, accessed on 28 June 2009; international symposium, "Criminal Law in Times of Emergency", Djanogly Hall, Mishkenot Sha'ananim, Jerusalem, 21-22 May 2008;


TANGUAY-RENAUD, François, "Individual Emergencies and the Rule of Criminal Law",  October, 31 2008, CLPE Research Paper No. 37/2008; available at SSRN: http://ssrn.com/abstract=1292805; available at http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1292805  (accessed on 9 November 2008);
  

TAUREK, John M., "Should the Numbers Count?", (1976-77) 6 Philosophy and Public Affairs 293-316;
 

TAYLOR, Greg, "The Victorian Criminal Code", (2004) 23(1) University of Queensland Law Journal 170-204, see "Necessity", at pp. 190-192;

THIEL, Stuart E., "Human Jettison: Lifeboat Ethics and Economic Efficiency", revised  December 2000,  25 p., available at SSRN: http://ssrn.com/abstract=144412 or DOI: 10.2139/ssrn.144412;

 

THOMSON, Judith Jarvis, "Comments - The Trolley Problem", (1985) 94 Yale Law Journal 1395-1415; also published in Judith Jarvis Thomson, edited by William Parent, Rights, Restitution, and Risk: Essays in Moral Theory, Cambridge (Massachusetts) and London (England): Harvard University Press, 1986, at pp. 94-116, ISBN: 0674769805 and 0674769813 (pbk.); also published in Jules L. Coleman, ed., Crimes and Punishments, New York & London: Garland Publishing, 1994, xxiv, 560 p. at pp. 115-135 (series; Philosophy of Law), ISBN: 0815314000; also translated in French by Fabien Cayla as "Le problème du tramway" dans La responsabilité: Questions philosophiques, sous la direction de Marc Neuberg, Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1997, 286 p. aux pp. 171-194 (collection; Philosophie morale dirigée par Monique Canto-Sperber), ISBN: 2130486789, copie à l'Université d'Ottawa,  MRT General  BJ 1452 .R48 1977;
 

__________"Killing, Letting Die, and the Trolley Problem", (1975-76) 59The Monist 204-217; also published in Judith Jarvis Thomson, edited by William Parent, Rights, Restitution, and Risk: Essays in Moral Theory, Cambridge (Massachusetts) and London (England): Harvard University Press, 1986, at pp. 78-93, ISBN: 0674769805 and 0674769813 (pbk.);

 

TIERNEY, Brian, "Origins of Natural Rights Language: Texts and Contexts, 1150-1250", (1989) 10 History of Political Thought 615-646, see the "right of self-preservation, specifically the right of the poor to use the surplus property of the rich to sustain life in cases of extreme need" (p. 639) at pp. 639-644;
 

__________"Natural Rights in the Thirteenth Century.  A Quaestion of  Henry of Ghent", (1992) 67 Speculum 58-68;
 

TIFFANY, Lawrence P. and Carl A. Anderson, "Legislating the Necessity Defense in Criminal Law", (1975) 52 Denver Law Journal 839-879;


TRAVIS, M., "The Compulsion Element in a Defence of Necesity", October 2000, available at http://web.archive.org/web/20040718053121/http://homepages.ihug.co.nz/~ttpbst/me/writing/compulsion.htm (accessed on 29 November 2006); 
 

TRESSELT, Matthias, "Renegade flights and the tragic choice: must the State sacrifice innocent people? A short view to German and European Right to life",  Reframing Human Rights III: Secular and Religious Sources of Human Rights, Berlin Workshop 2006, May 17th - 20th, "A workshop organized by the Irmgard Coninx Foundation, the Social Science Research Center Berlin (WZB) and Humboldt University", available at http://www.irmgard-coninx-stiftung.de/en/download/Matthias_Tresselt_III.pdf (accessed on 6 July 2006); important contribution to the subject;

UNIACKE, Suzanne, "The Limits of Criminality: Kant on the Plank', in Henry Tam, ed., Punishment, Excuses and Moral Development, Aldershot (England) and Brookfield (Vermont): Aveburg, 1996, x, 195 p. at  pp. 113-126 (series; Aveburg series in philosophy), ISBN: 1859722601; copy at the Solicitor General Library, Ottawa, HV7419 P86 1996;
 

___________ "Was Mary's Death Murder?", (Autumn 2001) 9 (3) Medical Law Review 208-220; most of this  issue of this periodical is on the English case of the cojoined twins Re A, see  http://www3.oup.co.uk/medlaw/hdb/Volume_09/Issue_03/ (accessed on 17 March 2003);
 

US, US Department of Justice, Jay S. Bybee, Assistant Attorney General, "Memorandum for Alberto R. Gonzales Counsel  to the President.  Re Standards of Conduct for Interrogation under 18 U.S.C. §§  2340-2340A", 1 August 2002; available at http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/nation/documents/dojinterrogationmemo20020801.pdf  (accessed on 17 March 2006); published in Kareen Greenberg and Joshua L. Dratel, eds., The Torture Papers: The Road to Abu Ghraib, New York : Cambridge University Press, 2005, xxxiv, 1249 p., at pp. 172-217 as Memo 14, 0521853249;   I have not yet consulted the book (17 March 2006);
 

U.S. v. Holmes, (1842) 26 Fed.Cas. 360-369 (Circuit Court); available at http://wings.buffalo.edu/law/bclc/web/holmes.htm (accessed on 10 April 2008);


VAN GERVEN, Walter, Jeremy and Pierre Larouche, Cases, Materials and Text on National, Supranational and International Tort Law, Oxford, Hart Publishing, 2000, xcix, 969 p., see Chapter 3, "Liability for One's Own Conduct", part 3.2.4, "Grounds of Justification", sub-part 3.2.4.C, "Necessity" (series: Common Law of Europe Casebooks series), ISBN: 1841131393; civil law (tort law) but very useful for researchers; available at  http://www.law.kuleuven.ac.be/casebooks/tort.php (accessed on 6 February 2006); and see also "Grounds of justification" (Comparative overview discussion) at pp. 356-357; copy at the Library of the Supreme Court of Canada, KJC1640 T672 2000;
 

VERHAEGEN, Jacques, Note, "L'acte de sauvetage inadéquat et ses conséquences pénales et civiles", (1982) Revue critique de jurisprudence belge 141-159; copie à l'Université d'Ottawa, FTX périodiques,
 

___________«L'humainement inacceptable en droit de la justification»,  dans Licéité en droit positif et Références légales aux valeurs, Contribution à l'étude du règlement juridique des conflits de valeurs en droit pénal, public et international, Xes Journées d'études juridiques  Jean Dabin organisées par l'Unité de droit pénal,  Bruxelles : Bruylant, 1982 aux pp. 137-157 (Collection; Bibliothèque de la Faculté de droit de  l'Université catholique de Louvain; XIV), ISBN: 2802703013;
 

VIDAL, Georges, 1852-1911, "Etat de nécessité -- Lecture à l'Académie de Législation -- À propos du rapport de M. Roux  et de la discussion à la Société générale des Prisons dans les séances des 7 novembre et 19 décembre 1900", (1900-1901) 49 Receuil de l'Académie de législation de Toulouse PDF 117-146; pdf et internet complétés le 15 septembre 2007; aussi disponible à http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k5454877w.langFR (vérifié le 5 mai 2009);


VITU, André, Observations, "Contrainte morale ou état de nécessité", (1986) Revue de science criminelle 87; disponible à  http://ledroitcriminel.free.fr/la_science_criminelle/les_sciences_juridiques/le_proces_penal/le_jugement/qualification_faits/vitu_necessite.htm (site visité le 29 novembre 2006);

 

WAABEN, Knud, «La théorie générale de l'infraction» dans Le droit pénal des pays scandinaves, sous la direction de Marc Ancel et de Ivar Strahl avec la collaboration de Johs. Andenaes et de Knud Waaben,  Paris : Les éditions de l'Épargne, 1969, x, 224 p., pp. 23-65, voir «L'état de nécessité» aux pp. 35-36 (Collection "Les grands systèmes de droit pénal contemporains", vol. 4);
 

WAIBLINGER, Max, «Actes Licites III - État de Nécessité», Les Fiches juridiques suisses, documentation fédérale et cantonale de pratique juridique, économique, sociale et fiscale, publiés sur fiches constamment tenues à jour, no 1206, mise au point 1er avril 1958, Genève (Suisse) : Fiches juridiques suisses, 1941-, 8 p.;
 

WALSH, Tamara, "Defending Begging Offenders", (2004) 4(1) Queensland University of Technology Law and Justice Journal 58-76, see "The Defence of Necessity", at pp. 63-65; copy at the Library of the Supreme Court of Canada; available at http://www.law.qut.edu.au/ljj/editions/v4n1/pdf/Walsh.pdf (accessed on 18 March 2008);
 

WASIK, Martin, "A Case of Necessity", [1984] Criminal Law Review 544-548;
 

WATT, Helen, "Conjoined Twins: Separation as Mutilation", (Autumn 2001) 9 Medical Law Review 237-245; theory of double effect;
 

WECHSLER, Herbert and Jerome Michael, "A Rationale of the Law of Homicide: I", (1937) 37 Columbia Law Review 701-761 at pp. 737-739;
 

WEINTRAUB, Melissa, "But Does Torture Save Lives?  Torture, Pikuakh Nefesh, and the Rodef Defense", 31 July 2005, 38 p.; available at  http://www.rhr-na.org/torture/butdoestorture.pdf (accessed on 10 December 2005);
 

WELLS, Celia., "Notes - Necessity and the Common Law", (1985) 5 Oxford Journal of Legal Studies 471-475;
 

WHILTON, Todd H., Comment, "Commonwealth v. Hutchins: A Defendant is Denied the Right to Present a Medical Necessity Defense", (1992-93) 27 New England Law Review 1101-1134;
 

WHITE, Stephen, "Sailors, Savages and Civilisation: Professor's Simpson's 'Cannibalism and the Common Law' - A Review Article", (1986) 10 Criminal Law Journal 168-181;
 

WICKS, Elisabeth, "The Greater Good?: Issues of Proportionality and Democracy in the Doctrine of Necessity as Applied in Re A", (2003) 32(1) Common Law World Review 15-34; deals with Re A (Children) (Conjoined Twins: Surgical Seperation), [2000] 4 All ER 961;


WIKIPEDIA -- The Free Encyclopedia, "Necessity", available at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Necessity (accessed on 19 July 2006);
 

  ___________"Necessity in English Law", available at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Necessity_in_English_law (accessed on 27 February 2008);
 

WILLIAMS, Glanville, 1911-1997, "A Commentary on R. v. Dudley and Stephens", (1977) 8 Cambrian Law Review 94-99;
 

___________"The Defence of Necessity", (1953) 6 Current Legal Problems 216-235;
 

___________"Defences of General Application.  The Law Commission's Report No. 83. (2) Necesssity",  [1978] Criminal Law Review 128-136;
 

___________"The Theory of Excuses", [1982] Criminal Law Review 732-742, see necessity at pp. 739-740;
 

WILSON, W. and K.J.M. Smith, "The Doctor's Dilemma: Necessity and the Legality of Medical Intervention" (1995) 1 Medical Law International 384-410; title noted in my research but article not consulted; no copy of this periodical in the Ottawa area libraries;
 

WINTER, Marion E. and Gordon L. Lindeen, "The Last Ditch Defense: Necessity and the Choice of Evils", (December1985)  The Army Lawyer 33-35; available at  https://www.jagcnet.army.mil/laawsxxi/cds.nsf (accessed on 1 October 2005);
 

WRIDE, Brent D., "Political Protest and the Illinois Defense of Necessity", (1987) 54 University of Chicago Law Review 1070-1094;
 

YEO, Stanley M.H. (Stanley Meng Heong), Compulsion in the Criminal Law, Sydney: The Law Book Company, 1990, xxiv, 300 p., ISBN: 0455209944;


___________"Compulsion and  Necessity in African Criminal Law", (2009) 53 Journal of African Law 90-110;


___________"Duress and Necessity", in Wing-Cheong Chan, Barry Wright, and Stanley Yeo, eds., Codification, Macaulay and the Indian Penal Code : the legacies and modern challenges of criminal law reform, Farnham, Surrey, England ; Burlington, VT, USA : Ashgate, c2011, xiii, 379 p.; ISBN: 9781409424420 (hardback); title noted in my research but article not consulted yet (7 November 2011);
 
 

___________"Necessity under the Griffith Code and the Common Law", (1991) 15 Criminal Law Journal 17-41;
 

___________"Private Defence, Duress and Necessity", (1991) 15 Criminal Law Journal 139-151, see the discussion on necessity at pp. 149-151;
 

___________"Proportionality in Criminal Defences", (1988) 12 Criminal Law Journal  211-227, see on necessity, pp. 220-224;
 

___________"Recent developments in criminal law. The harmful response in self-defence, duress and necessity", [Sydney] : Committee for Post-Graduate Studies in the Dept. of Law, University of Sydney, 1989, 52 p.;  notes: Lecture held 5th December 1989; At head of title: The University of Sydney, Faculty of Law, Continuing Legal Education, 1989; title noted in my research but article not consulted; no copy of this article in the Libraries covered by the AMICUS catalogue of Library and Archives Canada; information from the catalogue of the University of Sydney (14 July 2005);

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