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©François Lareau, 2005-, Ottawa, Canada
First posted on the Internet on: 27 October 2005

Selected Bibliography on
Obedience to Superior Orders
------
Bibliographie choisie sur l'obéissance
aux ordres des supérieurs

II - Comparative Law /
     Droit comparé

-----
see also / voir aussi:
Canadian Law / Droit canadien
-----

ADDICOTT, Jeffrey F., " The Lessons of My Lai ", (1992) 31 Revue de Droit Militaire et de Droit de la Guerre / The Military Law and Lawof War Review 73-115 and see pp. 87-88 on superior orders; copy atthe University of Ottawa, KJM 0 .R49  Location: FTX Periodicals;
 

AKHAVAN, Payam, "The Crime of Genocide in the ICTR Jurisprudence", (2005) 3 Journal of International Criminal Justice 989-1006, and see "Exceptions to Intentionality  1. Superior Responsibility", at p. 993;

ALBANIA, Criminal Code of the Republic of Albania, available at  at http://www.legislationline.org/upload/legislations/0f/55/d46a10bcf55b80aae189eb6840b4.htm  (accessed on 18 July 2006); also available at available at http://pbosnia.kentlaw.edu/resources/legal/albania/crim_code.htm  (accessed on 18 July 2006);

"Article 21
Exercising a Right or fulfilling a duty

A person bears no criminal responsibility if he acts to exercise rights or fulfill duties determined by law or an order ruled by a competent authority, unless the order is obviously unlawful.

AMBOS, Kai, "Current Issues in International Criminal Law: Reviewing :M. Cherif Bassiouni, Crimes against Humanity in International Criminal  Law, 2nd revised ed., The Hague: Kluwer Law, 1999, 610 pages", (2003) 14 Criminal Law Forum 225-260, at pp. 253-254; available at http://lehrstuhl.jura.uni-goettingen.de/kambos/Person/doc/current_issues_ICL_-_CLF_14_(2003),_225.pdf (accessed on 15 October 2005);
 

__________"General Principles of Criminal Law in the Rome Statute",(1999) 10(1) Criminal Law Forum 1-32, and see on superior orders,pp. 30-32;
 

THE AMERICAN LAW INSTITUTE, ALI Proceedings (May 1962), Philadelphia: The American Law Institute, at pp. 82-90 and 226-227; copy at the Library of the Supreme Court of Canada, microfiches;

"PROFESSOR WECHSLER ...

    In drafting this section we faced the general problem of whether there were other hierarchical organizations in which obedience to orders ought to be similarly formalized as a defense, having in mind particularly the police as a possibility, but the conclusion of both theadvisors and the Council and the Reporters was that the tradition of individualliability is so strong in relation to these organizations -- these civilian organizations -- that no innovations ought to be suggested.  To some extent a mistake of law has been given a little broader scope for the protectionof innocence in the justification section, but we thought that we ought not to go beyond that.

    However, in the case of the military you have a special situation.  You are dealing with a group which is under its own type of discipline, subject to its own type of punitive sanctions; and, what is more, it surely is the truth that existing laws afford some sanction to this defence.  So we decided to include it."

___________ Model Penal Code and Commentaries (Official Draftand Revised Comments), Part I - General Provisions §§1.01 to2.13, Philadelphia: The American Law Institute, 1985, liii, 420 p., see § 2.10 "Military Orders", at pp. 388-392;
 

___________Model Penal Code: Proposed Official Draft, Philadelphia: The American Law Institute, 1962, xxii, 346 p., see "Section 2.10. Military Orders" at p. 41;

"Section 2.10.  Military Orders.

    It is an affirmative defense that the actor, inengaging in the conduct charged to constitute an offense, does no morethan execute an order of his superior in the armed services which he doesnot know to be unlawful.
 

STATUS OF SECTION

...The present Manual limits the defense in military law to cases where the actor 'did not know and could not reasonably be expected to know that the act ordered was illegal.'  U.S. Dept. of the Army, Field Manual: The Law of Land Warfare 182 (1956).  Military courts are admonished, however, to 'take into consideration the fact that obedience to lawful orders is the duty of every member of the armed forces; that the latter cannot be expected, in conditions of war discipline, to weigh scrupulously the legal merits of the orders received,' etc.  In a prosecution in a civil court, it seems unrealistic to inquire whether a defendant who did not know an order was illegal could 'reasonably be expected' to have known it.  This limitation on the defense is accordingly abandoned in the view that when that question is in issue it is preferable that it should be litigated in a military court." (p. 41)

ANDERSON, C.J.L.F., "The Defence of Superior Orders", (June 1981) 126(2) RUSI Journal 52-57; RUSI Journal  = Journal of the Royal United Services Institute for Defence and Security Studies;UK periodical, ISSN 0035-9289; copy at Carleton University, Ottawa, SERU1.R82;
 

ANDRIES, A., "Les limites de la force exécutoire de l'ordre du  supérieur en droit militaire belge", (1969) 8(1) Revue de droit  pénal militaire et de droit de la guerre / The military law and law of war review 79-148; note: titre de périodique prédécesseur à Revue de droit militaire et de droit de la guerre; title noted in my research but article not consulted; no copy in the Ottawa area libraries covered by the AMICUS catalogue of Library and Archives Canada (verification of 17 October 2005); copy at l'Université de Sherbrooke;
 

___________"L'obéissance militaire et les interdictions du droit international public" dans Licéité en droit positif et références légales aux valeurs: contribution à l'étude du règlement juridique des conflits de valeurs en droit pénal public et international / [par] Jean Ladrière... [et al.] ; avant-propos de Jacques Verhaegen, Bruxelles: Bruylant,1982, 706 p., aux pp. 549-606 (Collection; Bibliothèque de la Faculté de droit de l'Université catholique de Louvain; volume 14), ISBN:2802703013; copie à l'Université d'Ottawa, FTX General: K7033 .L524 1982;
 

ARENDT, Hannah, Eichmann à Jérusalem : rapport sur la banalité du mal, traduction de l'anglais par Anne Guérin, revue par Michelle-Irène Brudny-de Launay; présentation par Michelle-Irène Brudny-de Launay, Paris: Gallimard, c1991, xxiii, 484 p. (Collection; Folio Histoire; 32), ISBN: 2070326217; copie à l'Université d'Ottawa, MRT Général, DD 247 .E5 A7141991;
 

___________Eichmann in Jerusalem : a report on the banality of evil, Rev. and enl. ed., New York : Penguin Books, 1977, c1964, 312 p.; copy at the University of Ottawa, MRT General, DD 247 .E5 A7 1977;
 

ARONSTEIN, G., "Un soldat peut-il refuser un ordre?", (1959) Journal des Tribunaux 648; titre noté dans mes recherches mais article non consulté; aucune bibliothèque de la région d'Ottawa comprise dans le catalogue AMICUS de Bibliothèque et Archives Canada, ne possède une copie de ce numéro de périodique (vérification du 18 octobre 2005);
 

ASSOCIATION INTERNATIONALE DE DROIT PÉNAL  (AIDP) (International Association of Penal Law), "Projet de Code pénal international", (1981) 52(1-2) Revue internationale de droit pénal;

ASSOCIATION INTERNATIONALE DE DROIT PÉNAL  (AIDP) (International Association of Penal Law) and Istituto Superiore Internazionale di Scienze Criminali (ISISC) (International Institute of Higher Studies in Criminal Sciences) and Max Planck Institute for Foreign and International Criminal Law (MPI), Draft Statute
for an International Criminal Court -- Alternative to the ILC-Draft -- (Siracusa-Draft), prepared by a Committee of Experts Siracusa/Freiburg, July 1995, 88 p.; available at  http://www.iuscrim.mpg.de/forsch/straf/referate/sach/hispint/siracusa.pdf (accessed on 10 December 2005);

"Art. 33 o
Superior Order

1. A person acting pursuant to an order of a government or a superior is not relieved of punishability, unless such order results in coercion or duress, mistake of fact or law.

2. A superior order may be considered in mitigation of punishment if justice so requires." (p. 53)

AUBERT, Maurice, "The question of superior orders and the responsibility of commanding officers in the protocol additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949 and relating to the protection of victims of internationalarmed conflicts (Protocol I) of 8 June 1977", (1988) 28 International Review of the Red Cross 105-120; number 263; copy at the Universityof Ottawa, MRT Periodicals: HV 560 .I56;
 

AUSTRALIA, Queensland, Criminal Code Act 1899, see sections 31 (Justification and excuse--compulsion) and 263 (Suppression of riot by person acting under lawful orders); available at  http://www.legislation.qld.gov.au/LEGISLTN/CURRENT/C/CriminCode.pdf (accessed on 30 August 2005);

"31  Justification and excuse—compulsion

(1) A person is not criminally responsible for an act or omission, if the person does or omits to do the act under any of the following circumstances, that is to say--

(a) in execution of the law;
(b) in obedience to the order of a competent authority which he or she is bound by law to obey, unless the order is manifestly unlawful;
(c) when the act is reasonably necessary in order to resist actual and unlawful violence threatened to the person, or to another personin the person's presence;
(d) when--

(i) the person does or omits to do the act in order to save himself or herself or another person, or his or her property or the property of another person, from serious harm or detriment threatened to be inflicted by some person in a position to carry out the threat; and
(ii) the person doing the act or making the omission reasonably believes he or she or the other person is unable otherwise to escape the carrying out of the threat; and
(iii) doing the act or making the omission is reasonably proportionate to the harm or detriment threatened.

(2) However, this protection does not extend to an act or omission which would constitute the crime of murder, or any of the
crimes defined in sections 81(2) and 82, or an offence of which grievous bodily harm to the person of another, or an
intention to cause such harm, is an element, nor to a person who has by entering into an unlawful association or
conspiracy rendered himself or herself liable to have such threatsmade to the person.

(3) Whether an order is or is not manifestly unlawful is a questionof law." (emphasis in bold added)

......

"263  Suppression of riot by person acting under lawful orders

(1) It is lawful for any person acting in good faith in obedience to orders, not manifestly unlawful, given by a justice for the suppressionof a riot, to use such force as the person believes, on reasonable grounds, to be necessary for carrying such
orders into effect.

(2) Whether any particular order so given is or is not manifestly unlawful is a question of law."

___________Tasmania, Criminal Code Act 1924, sections 36 and 38; available at  http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/tas/consol_act/cca1924115/s13.html (accessed on 2 October 2005);
 

36. Suppression of riot by person acting under lawful orders

(1) It is lawful for any person acting in good faith in obedience to an order, not manifestly unlawful, given by a sheriff or justice for the suppression of a riot, to use such force as he believes on reasonable grounds to be necessary for carrying such order into effect.

(2) It is a question of law whether any particular order is manifestly unlawful or not.
 

38. Riot: Persons subject to military law

(1) It is lawful for a person who is bound by military law to obey the lawful commands of his superior officer to obey any command given him by such officer for the suppression of a riot, unless the command is manifestly unlawful.

(2) It is a question of law whether any particular command is manifestlyunlawful or not.
 
 

31.  Justification and excuse: Compulsion

A person is not criminally responsible for an act or omission if he does or omits to do the act under any of the following circumstances, that is to say--

(1) In execution of the law;

(2) In obedience to the order of a competent authority which he is bound by law to obey, unless the order is manifestly unlawful;

(3) When the act is reasonably necessary in order to resist actual and unlawful violence threatened to him, or to another person in his presence;

(4) When he does or omits to do the act in order to save himself fromimmediate death or grievous bodily harm threatened to be inflicted upon him by some person actually present and in a position to execute the threats, and believing himself to be unable otherwise to escape the carrying of the threats into execution;

But this protection does not extend to an act or omission which would constitute an offence punishable with strict security life imprisonment, or an offence of which grievous bodily harm to the person of another, or an intention to cause such harm, is an element, nor to a person who has, by entering into an unlawful association or conspiracy, rendered himself liable to have such threats made to him.

Whether an order is or is not manifestly unlawful is a question of law." (emphasis in bold added)

BAKKER, Jeanne L., "The Defense of Obedience to Superior Orders:The Mens Rea Requirement", (1989-90) 17 American Journal of Criminal Law55-80; copy at the University of Ottawa, KF 9202 .A427  Location:FTX Periodicals; with the same title in Neil J. Kritz, ed., Transitional Justice: How Emerging Democracies Reckon With Former Regimes : General Considerations, Washington, D.C. : United States Institute of Peace Press, 1995, vol. l, at pp. 441-456, ISBN: 187837947X and 1878379437 (pbk.); note: excerpts of pp. 55-71 and 74-75 of American Journal of Criminal  Law; copy at the University of Ottawa, MRT General, K 5250 .T7461995 v.1;
 

BANTEKAS, Ilias, "Defences in International Criminal Law", in Dominic McGoldrick, Peter Rowe, and Eric Donnelly, eds., The Permanent International Criminal Court: Legal and Policy Issues, Oxford (England)/Portland(Oregon): Hart Publishing, 2004, xviii, 498 p., at pp. 263-284, and see "Superior Orders", at pp. 269-273, (series; Studies in International Law; volume 5), ISBN: 1841132810; copy at the Library of the Supreme Court ofCanada, KZ 6310 P47 2004;
 

BASSIOUNI, M. Cherif, 1937-, Crimes Against humanity in International criminal law, 2nd rev. ed., The Hague/London/Boston: Kluwer Law International, 1999, xli, 610 p., ISBN: 9041112227; see "obedience to Superior Orders" at pp. 449-483; copy at the Library of the Supreme Court of Canada, K5302B37 1999;
 

___________compiled by, The Statute of the International CriminalCourt : a documentary history, Ardsley, N.Y. : Transnational Publishers, c1998, xxii, 793 p.,  ISBN:1571050957; copy at the Library of Parliament, KZ6310 S72 (Library Br.B.); and see:

- "Report of the Preparatory Committee on the Establishment of an International Criminal Court, document number: A/Conf. 183/2/Add.1, 1998, at pp. 119-210, and see in particular, Article 32, "Superior orders  and prescription of law", at p. 147 (p. 70 of the U.N. document);

- "Draft Report of the Intersessional Meeting from 19 to 30 January1998 in Zutphen, The Netherlands", document number: A/AC.249/1998/L.13,1998, at pp. 221-311, and in particular, "Article 26 Superior orders and  prescription of law", at p. 251 (pp. 63-64 of the UN document); and

- "Report of the Preparatory Committee on the Establishment of an International Criminal Court, vol. II, (Compilation of Proposals)", document number:G.A., 51 st Sess., Supp. No. 22, A/51/22, 1996), at pp. 441-616, and see,  in praticular, "Article Q Superior orders, at pp. 494-495 (p. 102 of theUN document);

BERGER, Jacob, "The Legal Nature of War Crimes and the Problem of  Command Orders", (1944) 38 American Political Science Review 1203-1208; copy at the University of Ottawa, A 1 .A6  Location: MRT Storage; copy at Carleton University, JA1.A6  Location, Floor 4 Serial;
 

BERSIER, Roland, "Extenuating circumstances according to the principle of superior orders", in International Meeting on Impunity of Perpetratorsof Gross Human Rights Violations (1992 : Geneva, Switzerland), InternationalCommission of Jurists (1952-), Commission nationale consultative des droitsde l'homme, International Meeting on Impunity of Perpetrators of GrossHuman Rights Violations / organized by the Commission nationale consultative des droits de l'homme and the International Commission of Jurists, Geneva : International Commission of Jurists, c1993, 359 p., at pp. 223-234;  notes: Titre de la couverture: Justice not impunity; copy at theLibrary of the Supreme Court of Canada, K3239.8 I585 1993;
 

BLACKETT, J., "Superior Orders: The Military Dilemma", (February 1994) 12 RUSI Journal 52-57; RUSI Journal = Journal of the Royal United Services Institute for Defence and Security Studies; UK periodical, ISSN 0035-9289; copy at Carleton University, Ottawa, SERU1.R82;
 

BOUGRAT, René, L'obéissance hiérarchique, Paris: Les Presses universitaires de France, 1934, 166, [7] p.; thèse, Université de Pafris, 1934; titre noté dans mes recherches mais thèse non consultée; aucune copie dans les bibliothèquescanadiennes de la région d'Ottawa comprises dans le catalogue AMICUS de Bibliothèque et Archives Canada; une seule localisation au Canada: Bibliothèque de l'Assemblée nationale du Québec, 344.4'026 B758 1934 (vérification du 10 octobre 2005);
 

BOULANGER, François, "L'ordre supérieur militaire et la responsabilité du subordonné au regard du règlementde discipline générale du 1 ^er  octobre 1966", La semaine juridique 1967, I.-- Doctrine 2089, 4p.;
 

BRETTON, Philippe, "La mise en oeuvre des protocoles de Genèvede 1977", (1979) 95 Revue du droit public et de la science politiqueen France et à l'étranger 379-423, et voir "Le problème des ordres supérieurs", aux pp. 417-419 et "La responsabilité des supérieurs pour infraction commise par un subordonné", aux pp. 419-420; copie à la Bibliothèquede la Cour suprême du Canada;
 

BREWER, T.C., "Their's not to reason why -- some aspects of the defenceof superior orders in New Zealand military law", (1979) 9 Victoria University of Wellington Law Review 45-61; copy at the University of Ottawa, KTC0 .V52  Location: FTX Periodicals;
 

BRIGHT, Kellie, "Memorandum for Office of the Prosecutor.  Issue  # 10: Defence of Superior Orders -- A Legal Review of Article 6(4) of the ICTR Statute", May 1999, ii, 25 p.; available at  http://www.nesl.edu/center/wcmemos/1999/bright.pdf (accessed on 18 October 2005); note: New England School of Law International War crimes Project Rwanda Genocide Prosecution;
 

BROWN, A.W., "Military Orders as a Defense in Civil Courts", (1917-18)  8 Journal of the American Institute of Criminal Law and Criminology 190-210;
 

BROWNLEE, Ian D., "Superior Orders -- Time for a New Realism?", [1989] The  Criminal Law Review 396-411; copy at the University of Ottawa, KD 7862.C734  Location: FTX Periodicals;
 

BULGARIA, Criminal Code of the Republic of Bulgaria, available at http://www.legislationline.org/legislations.php?jid=10&ltid=15  (accessed on 10 October 2007);

BURCHELL, E.M., J.R.L. Milton and J.M. Burchell, South African Criminal Law and Procedure, Vol I, General Principles of Criminal Law by  EM Burchell and PMA Hunt, 2nd ed., Cape Town: Juta, 1983, lxii, 512p., and see "Obedience to Orders", at pp. 354-359, ISBN: 070211345X (hardcover)  and 0702113468 (softcover); research note: there is now a 3rd ed.,  Kenwyn: Juta, 1997, xxxviii, 383 p., (series;  South African criminallaw and procedure; v. 1), ISBN: 070213855X which I have not consulted;

"INTRODUCTION

    Athough necessity (in the form of compulsion) and authority are involved where a subordinate acts upon the instructions of a superior, obdedience to orders has emerged as a distinct defence, and  will, therefore, be considered separately." (2nd ed., p. 354)

----

"PERSONS OTHER THAN SOLDIERS

    Apart from soldiers, our law recognizes that 'some  persons stand in such a relation of subjection to others that they are  bound, within certain limits, to obey the orders given them by such others.'  Where this necessitas parendi exists and obedience results in the commission of a crime by the subordinate he is excused from liability provided the crime is not a serious one.

    The Roman and Roman-Dutch law extended this defence to a slave who carried out his owner's instructions and to a child who obeyed the orders of his father or guardian. ...  No clear guiding principles are, however, deductible from these [South African] decisions since the courts were inclined to treat obedience to orders and necessity (or compulsion) in one breath as it were, and, children between the ages of 7 and 14 being involved, to confuse the issues of justification and mens rea." (2nd ed., p. 355; notes omitted)

-----

"Extension of the Defence to Persons Other Than Soldiers

....  Moreover, the defence appears to cover members of the police force.  On the other hand, an extension of the protection to servants and employees who act in obedience to the orders of their superiors, does not seem justified, although, of course, in a proper case they could plead necessity." (p. 359; notes omitted)
 

BURCHELL, Jonathan and John Milton, Principles of Criminal Law, Cape Town: Juta, 1991, xlvii, 669 p., and see Chapter 15, "Superior Orders", at pp. 153-158 and "Putative Obedience to Orders", at pp. 292-294, ISBN:07212639X; research note: there is now a 2nd ed, Kenwyn: Juta,1997,  li, 734 p., ISBN: 0702138541 which I have not consulted yet;
 

BURNHAM, William, "The New Russian Criminal Code: A Window unto Democratic Russia", (2000) 26(4) Review of Central and East European Law 365-424, see "Following Orders" at p. 405; copy at home;
 

CASSESE, Antonio, International criminal law, Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press, 2003, lvi, 472 p., see "Superior Orders: May They Be Pleaded as a Defence?", at pp. 231-242; Mistake of  fact and Superior Order" at pp. 253-255; "Mistake of Law and Superior Order at pp.261-263, ISBN: 0199261288 and  0199259119 (pbk); copy at the Library of the Supreme Court of Canada, K5000 C37 2003 c. 01; copy at Carleton University, floor 4, K5000 .C37 2003;

Charter of the International [Nuremberg] Military Tribunal, annexed to the Agreement for the establishment of an international military tribunal, August 8, 1945;

II. JURISDICTION AND GENERAL PRINCIPLES ...

Article 8

    The fact that the defendant acted pursuant to order of his Government or of a superior shall not free him from responsibility, but may be considered in mitigation of punishment if the Tribunal determines that justice so requires."

CHERRY, John A., "Command as a defence in criminal cases in Pennsylvania", (1935) 39 Dickinson Law Review 230-236;

"CONCLUSION

I. The general rule is that mere command is not a defense to a crime.

A.  A servant is criminally responsible for a criminalact even though committed at the command of the master.

B.  An infant is criminally responsible for a criminal act although such act was done at the command of the parent.

C.  A wife is criminally responsible for the commission of a criminal act, although she acts under a command from her husband.

D.  A tenant is criminally responsible for the doing of a criminal act, although such act was done at the command of his landlord.

II.   There are certain exceptions to the general rule,

A.  An individual is not criminally responsible for a criminal act committed at the command of a police officer to assist such officer, even though the officer is proceeding without authority.

B.  One who commits a criminal act under a command of the law, is excused by reason of such command.

C.  One who commits a criminal act under a command of a court is excused from criminal liability in obeying such command.

IlI. There is a modification of the general rule in one instance:

An inferior who commits a criminal act under the command ofa superior in the army or navy is not criminally responsible unless the order was so palpably illegal that one of ordinary sense and understanding would know that it was illegal, if reasonable discretion was used." (p.236)

CONGO, République fédérale du Congo, Constitution ,1992; disponible à  http://www.udps.org/constitutions.html(visionné le 25 août 2005);

"Article 8

Nul n'est tenu d'exercer un ordre manifestement illégal, lorsque celui-ci porte atteinte aux droits et libertés de la personne humaine."

CORNELIS, Ludo and Pierre Van Ommeslaghe, "Les 'faits justificatifs' dans le droit belge de la responsabilité aquilienne", in Journées d'études sur le droit de la responsabilité (1984: Gand, Belgique), Limpens, Jean, 1910-1979, Centre interuniversitaire de droit comparé, In  memoriam Jean Limpens : Studiedagen aansprakelijkheidsrecht, Gent, 23-24 maart 1984 = In memoriam Jean Limpens : Journées d'études sur le droit de la responsabilité, Gent, 23-24 mars 1984 = In memoriam Jean Limpens : Symposium on Civil Liability, Gent, 23-24 March 1984, Antwerpen : Kluwer rechtswetenschappen, 1987, xxvii, 311 p., aux pp. 265-287, et voir "L'ordre de l'autorité légitime", aux pp. 281-282 (series; Interuniversitair Centrum voor Rechtsvergelijking; 12), (Collection; Centre interuniversitaire de droit comparé; 12), ISBN: 9063212879; copy at the Library of the Supreme Court of Canada, K923 Z9 I56 1987; droit civil mais un article utile pour les chercheurs et chercheuses;
 

CORNELIUS, Sarah, "The Defence of Superior Orders and Erich Priebke",(1997) 31 Patterns of Prejudice 3; title noted in my research but article not consulted; no copy of this particular number of the periodical is available in the Ottawa area libraries;
 

COSTE-FLORET, "La répression des crimes de guerre et le fait justificatif tiré de l'ordre supérieur", (1945) Recueil Dalloz, chronique 21;  titre noté dans mes recherches mais article non consulté; aucune bibliothèque de la région d'Ottawa comprise dans le catalogue AMICUS de Bibliothèque et Archives Canada, ne possède une copie de ce numéro de périodique (vérification du 18 octobre 2005);
 

CROSS, Requel, "The Relevance of the Eichmann, Barbie, and Finta Trials for the ICTR", Case Western Reserve University School of Law, International War Crimes Project, International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda, Spring 2003, 39 p.; available at  http://www.nesl.edu/center/wcmemos/2003/cross.pdf (accessed on 20 October 2005); note: Web site of the New England Schoolof Law International War crimes Project Rwanda Genocide Prosecution;
 

CRYER, Robert, "Superior orders and the International Criminal Court", in Richard Burchill, Justin Morris, and Nigel White, eds., International Conflict and Security Law: Essays in Memory of Hilaire McCoubrey, New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005, 348 p., at  pp. 49 to approx. 67, ISBN: 0521845319; title noted; no locations yet for this book, verification of the AMICUS catalogue of Library and Archives Canada (verification of 4 December 2005);
 

CZACHORSKI, Witold, "Causes de justification -- Note pour les pays socialistes, in Journées d'études sur le droit de la responsabilité (1984: Gand, Belgique), Limpens, Jean, 1910-1979, Centre interuniversitaire de droit comparé, In  memoriam Jean Limpens : Studiedagen aansprakelijkheidsrecht, Gent, 23-24 maart 1984 = In memoriam Jean Limpens : Journées d'études sur le droit de la responsabilité, Gent, 23-24 mars 1984 = In memoriam Jean Limpens : Symposium on Civil Liability, Gent, 23-24 March 1984, Antwerpen : Kluwer rechtswetenschappen, 1987, xxvii, 311 p., at pp. 251-264, et voir "Ordre de la loi ou sa permission -- Commandement de l'autorité légitime", aux pp. 257-259 (series; Interuniversitair Centrum voor Rechtsvergelijking; 12), (Collection; Centre interuniversitaire de droit comparé; 12), ISBN: 9063212879; copy at the Library of the Supreme Court of Canada, K923 Z9 I56 1987; droit civil mais un article utile pour les chercheurs et chercheuses;
 

D'AMATO, Anthony, "Agora.  Superior Orders vs. Command Responsibility", (1986) 80 American Journal of International Law 604-608;
 

DANIEL, Aubrey M.,  "The Defense of Superior Orders", (1972-73) 7 University of Richmond Law Review 477-509;
 

DANNER, Allison Marston, and Jenny S. Martinez, "Guilty Associations: Joint Criminal Enterprise, Command Responsibility, and the Developmentof International Criminal Law" (January  2005) 93(1) California Law Review 75-169; copy at the University of Ottawa, KFC 69 .C335 Location, FTX Periodicals; available at http://law.vanderbilt.edu/faculty/pubs/danner-guity%20associations.pdf?abstract_id=526202 (accessed on 22 February 2006); see also http://papers.ssrn.com/papers.cfm?abstract_id=526202 (accessed on 7 November 2005);
 

DAUBE, David, The defence of superior orders in Roman law, an inaugural lecture delivered before the University of Oxford on 8 February 1956, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1956, 24 p.;
 

___________"The Defence of Superior Orders in Roman Law", (1956) 72 The Law Quarterly Review 494-515;
 

DAVID, Eric, "L'excuse de l'ordre supérieur et l'état de nécessité", (1978-79) 14 Revue belge de droit international 65-84; copie à l'Université d'Ottawa, K 21 .E87  Location:FTX Periodicals;
 

DENSON, William D., In Memoriam, "The Obligation to Disobey Superior Orders under International Law", (2001) 9 Touro International Law Review 177-182;
 

La Déontologie Policière, Compilation de textes haïtiens et des Nations Unies relatifs à l'éthique d'un bon policier dans son travail quotidien, Misyon Sivil Entènasyonalan Ayiti, OEA/ONU, 1996; note: "Les textes de cette brochure ont été recueillis et traduits par la Mission Civile Internationale en Haïti, OEA/ONU (MICIVIH). Les traductions en langue créole ont été réalisées par Romane St. Louis et Ronald Hooghiemstra", disponible à http://www.un.org/rights/micivih/livrets/polisliv.htm (visionné le 30 septembre 2005);

"Article 17.   Le subordonné est tenu de se conformer aux instructions de l'autorité, sauf dans le cas où l'ordre donné est manifestement illégal et de nature à compromettre gravement un intérêt public. Si le subordonné croit se trouver en présence d'un tel ordre, il a le devoir de faire part de ses objections à l'autorité qui l'a donné, en indiquant expressément la signification illégale qu'il attache à l'ordre litigieux."

DE SEANA, Pasquale, "Immunity of State Organs and Defence of Superior Orders as an Obstacle to the Domestic Enforcement of International Human Rights", in Enforcing international human rights in domestic courts,The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers/Kluwer Law International, 1997, xvi, 466 p., at pp. 367-403. (series; International studies in human rights; v. 49), ISBN: 9041103937; copy at the University of Ottawa,  FTX General:K 3240.4 .E54 1997; copie à la Bibliothèque de la Cour suprême du Canada, K3240.4 E54 1997;
 

DICEY, A. V. (Albert Venn), 1835-1922, Introduction to the study of the law of the constitution, 8th edition, London : Macmillan and co., limited, 1920, cv, 577, and see pp. 298-302;
 

DINSTEIN, Yoram, The conduct of hostilities under the law of international armed conflict, New York : Cambridge University Press, 2004, xx, 275 p., and see "Obedience to superior orders", at pp. 250-251 and "Mitigationof Punishment", at pp. 253-254, ISBN: 0521834368 and 0521542278 (pbk.); copy at the University of Ottawa,  FTX General: KZ 6385 .D56 2004;
 

___________The defence of  "obedience to superior orders" in international law. Introd. By Shabtai Rosenne,  Leyden, A. W. Sijthoff, 1965,  xvi, 278 p.,  copy at the University of Ottawa, MRT General, K 5087.S9 D547 1965;
 

__________"Defences", in Gabrielle Kirk McDonald and Olivia Swaak-Goldman, eds., Substantive and Procedural Aspects of International Criminal Law.  The Experience of International and National Courts", vol. I, Commentary ,The Hague-London-Boston: Kluwer Law International, 2000, xvi,705 p., at pp. 367-388; copy at the Library of the Supreme Court of Canada, K5000S83 2000, v. 1;388;
 

__________"International Criminal Law", (1985) 20 Israel Law Review 206-242, and see "Obedience to Superior Order", at pp. 236-238; see also pp. 241-242;
 

DONNEDIEU DE VABRES, Henri, "Le procès de Nuremberg devant les principes modernes du droit pénal international", (1947-I) Recueil des cours de l'académie de droit international de La Haye 476-580,  et voir sur l'ordre supérieur, les pp. 567-573; copie à l'Université d'Ottawa, KZ 24 .H35  Location: FTX Periodicals;
 

DOUGLASS, Joh Jay, "High Command Case: A Study in Staff and Command Responsibility", (1972) 6 International Lawyer 686-705, and see"Defense of Superior Orders", at pp. 693-698;
 

DOWNEY, P.J., "Superior orders", (November 1985) New Zealand LawJournal 249-251; copy at the University of Ottawa, KTC 0 .B887 Location: FTX Periodicals;
 

DUFOUR, Geneviève, "La défense d'ordres supérieurs existe-t-elle vraiment?", (décembre 2000) 82 Revue internationale de la Croix-Rouge 969-992 (numéro 840), copie à l'Universitéd'Ottawa, MRT Periodicals: HV 560 .I5612; disponible à /Web/fre/sitefre0.nsf/iwpList180/090A40D22A096860C1256C750042FCB8 (accessed on 7 October 2004);
 

DUKE, Steven, "Excuses: 6. Superior Orders", in Sanford H. Kadish, ed., Encyclopedia of Crime and Justice, vol. 2, New York: Free Press, 1983, at pp. 745-749, ISBN: 0029181110 (for the set of 4 volumes);
 

DUNBAR, N.C.H., "Some Aspects of the Problem of Superior Orders", (1951) 63 Juridical Review 234-261; copy at the University of Ottawa, KD322 .J854  Location: FTX Periodicals;
 

DUYX, Peter, Roelof Haveman and Elies van Sliedregt, "War Crimes and the Statute of Rome: Some Afterthoughts", (2000) 39 Revue de Droit Militaire et de Droit de la Guerre / The Military Law and Law of War Review 67-122, and see on the defence of superior orders, pp. 73-76 and 93-100; "Report of the Seminar hosted by the Netherlands Defence College in Rijswijk, TheNetherlands on 22 October 1999"; copy at the University of Ottawa, KJM0 .R49  Location: FTX Periodicals;
 

EDEN, Paul, "Criminal liability and the defence of superior orders", (1991) 108(4) The South African Law Journal 640-655; 

ELLIOTT, Catherine, "A Comparative Analysis of Defences in English and French Criminal Law", (2000) 8(4) European Journal of Crime, Criminal Law and Criminal Justice 319-326, see "Order of a Legitimate Authority" at p. 323;
 

EPPS, Valerie, "The Soldier's Obligation to Die When Ordered to Shoot Civilians or Face Death Himself", (2002-2003) 37 New England Law Review 987-1013;

ERMAN, Sahir, "Compliance with Superior Orders under Domestic CriminalLaw and under the Law of War", (1971) 10 Revue de Droit Pénal Militaire et de Droit de la Guerre / The military law and law of war review 371; title noted in my research but article not consulted; no copy in the Ottawa area libraries covered by the AMICUS catalogue of Library and Archives  Canada (verification of 17 October 2005); copy at l'Université deSherbrooke;
 

ESER, Albin, "'Defences' in War Crime Trials", (1994) 24 Israel Yearbook on Human Rights 201-222, see "Obedience to Superior Order" at pp. 204-211; available at http://www.freidok.uni-freiburg.de/volltexte/3734/pdf/Eser_Defences_in_war_crime_trials.pdf (accessed on 21 January 2008); with the same title in Yoram Dinstein and  Mala Tabory, eds., War Crime Trials in International Law, The Hague: Nijhoff, 1996, xiv, 489 p., at  pp. 251-273, ISBN: 904110237X;
 

EUSTATHIADES, C., "Quelques aspects de la jurisprudence concernant les criminels de guerre, l'exception des ordres reçus et autres moyens de défense similaires", in  Dëmëtrios S. Könstantopoulos,1916-, and  Hans Wehberg, 1885-, eds., Gegenwartsprobleme des internationalen Rechtes und der Rechtsphilosophie. Festschrift für Rudolf Laun zuseinem 70. Geburtstag. Hrsg. von D.S. Constantopoulos und Hans Wehberg, Hamburg : Girardet, [c1953],  776 p., à la p. 395; article noted in my research but not consulted; no copy of this book in the Ottawa libraries covered by the AMICUS catalogue of Library and Archives Canada (verification of 2 December 2004); copy at York University, Osgoode Hall Law School, Law Library, JX 3091 C65;
 

FINCH, George A., "Superior Orders and War Crimes", (1921) 15 AmericanJournal of International Law 440-445;
 

FLETCHER, George P., "Excuse: Theory", in Joshua Dressler, Editor in Chief, Encyclopedia of Crime & Justice, 2nd ed., New York/Detroit etc.: Macmillan Reference USA, Gale Group, Thomson Learning, 2002, vol.2, pp. 637-643, ISBN: 0028653211 (vol. 2) and 002865319X (set of 4 volumes); on the defence of superior orders, see p. 642;

"If the order is lawful, then presumably the execution would also be regarded as lawful.  A lawful act does not raise a question of excusability.  However, if the order is unlawful, the actor's ignorance of the legal quality of the order and of his execution might excuse him by analogy with mistake of law. ...

    Although the distinction between claims of justification and of excuse remain defensible in principle, Anglo-American legal thought has yet to achieve consensus regarding the exact nature not only of superior orders but of duress, personal necessity, and mistake of law." (p. 642)

FRANCE, Code pénal, art. 122-4;

FREDERICK K. COX INTERNATIONAL LAW CENTER -- WAR CRIME RESEARCHPORTAL, bibliography of links on superior orders at  http://www.law.case.edu/war-crimes-research-portal/links.asp?start=0&offset=10&id=52 (accessed on 15 September 2005);
 

FURET, Marie-Françoise, Jean-Claude Martinez et Henri Dorandeu, Laguerre et le droit, Paries: Pedone, 1979, 335 p., et voir les pp. 280-284 sur la supression de l'article 77 du projet de la C.I.C.R.; ISBN: 2233000676; copie à l'Université d'Ottawa, FTX General: KZ 6385 .F871979;
 

GAETA, Paola, "The Defence of Superior Orders: The Statute of the International Criminal Court Versus Customary International Law", (1999) 10 EuropeanJournal of International Law 172-191; available at http://www.ejil.org/journal/Vol10/No1/100172.pdf (accessed on 20 July 2004);
 

GARRAWAY, Charles, "Superior Orders and the International Criminal Court: Justice Delivered or Justice Denied", (1999) 81 International Review Red Cross 785-794; issue 836, available at  http://www.icrc.org/Web/Eng/siteeng0.nsf/iwpList320/4F89CC080CE0E792C1256B66005DD767 (accessed on 10 October 2005); with the same title in Olympia Bekou andRobert Cryer, eds., The International Criminal Court, Aldershot (Hants, England)/Burlington (VT) : Ashgate/Dartmouth,Ashgate, 2004, 550 p. (series; The Library of Essays in International Law), ISBN: 0754624099; I have not consulted the book, copy of which is not available in the Ottawa area libraries covered by the AMICUS catalogue of Library and ArchivesCanada (verification of 16 October 2005);
 

GLASER, Stefan, 1895-, Infraction internationale: ses éléments constitutifs et ses aspects juridiques exposé sur la base du droit pénal comparé, Paris: Librairie générale de droit et de jurisprudence, 1957, viii, 226 p., voir les pp. 92-95 et137 (Bibliothèque de droit international sous le patronage de L'Institut des hautes études internationales de l'Université de Paris;tome IV); copie à l'Université d'Ottawa,  FTX General:K 5015.4 .G53 1957;

    "La contrainte morale présente un intérêt particulier en matière d'infractions internationales en raison du rôle que joue dans ce domaine l'ordre hiérarchique(65).  Comme nous l'avons déjà constaté, les infractions internationales se caractérisent pour la plupart par le fait que celui qui les commet, ne le fait pas de sa propre inspiration et pour son propre compte: le plus souvent il le fait sur l'ordre reçu de son gouvernement ou de son supérieur hiérarchique. Il suffit, en effet, de penser à des infractions telles que le déclenchement d'une guerre d'agression, aux crimes de guerre, aux crimes contre l'humanité, y compris le génocide, etc.

    Or, il peut arriver que le destinataire d'un ordre dont l'exécution aboutirait à une violation du droit, voire à une infraction, se trouve en face de l'alternative: ou obéir à l'ordre et commettre ainsi l'infraction, ou bien désobéir et exposer par conséquent au danger ses biens ou ses intérêts, souvent les plus vitaux.  Vu notamment la rigueur de la discipline militaire, il est à concevoir que le destinataire d'un tel ordre  a toutes raisons de croire que le seul moyen d'éviter une punition capitale pour désobéissance est d'accomplir ce qu'on demande de lui, c'est-à-dire d'exécuter l'ordre.  Si dans une telle situation il commet l'infraction pour sauver son intérêt ou pour échapper à ce danger, il peut en effet agir sous la contrainte morale, et alors il faudrait admettre son irresponsabilité.[...]
------
(65) Cf. GLASER, L'ordre hiérarchique en Droit pénalinternational , Revue pénale belge, janvier 1953, n^o 4, p. 283 et suiv." (p. 137)

___________"L'ordre hiérarchique en droit pénal international", (1952-53) 33 Revue de droit pénal et de criminologie 283-330; titre noté dans mes recherches mais article non consulté;aucune copie de ce numéro de périodique dans les bibliothèques de la région d'Ottawa;
 

GLEN., J.B., "Annotation: Civil and criminal liability of soldiers, sailors, and militiamen", (1941) 135 ALR 10-59;
 

GRAYSON, J.W., "The Defence of Superior Orders in the InternationalCriminal Court", (1995) 64 Nordic Journal of International Law 243-260; title noted in my research but article not consulted; no copy in the Ottawaarea libraries covered by the AMICUS catalogue of Library and Archives Canada (verification of 16 October 2005);
 

GREEN, L. C. (Leslie Claude), 1920-, The contemporary law of armed conflict, 2nd ed., Manchester/New York: Manchester University Press, 2000, xx, 393 p., on the defence of superior orders, see pp. 305-308 and 314-315 (series; Melland Schill studies in international law), ISBN: 0719056004and 0719056012 (pbk.);
 

__________Essays on the Modern Law of War, Dobbs Ferry, N.Y.: Transnational Publishers, c1985, xxii, 281 p., see the index and the following essays: Essay II, "The Man in the Field and the Maxim IgnorantiaJuris Non Excusat ", at pp. 27-42 and Essay III, "Superior Orders andthe Man in the Field", at pp. 43-72, ISBN: 094132026X; copy at the Universityof Ottawa, FTX General: KZ 6385 .G376 1985;
 

___________"Legal Issues in the Eichmann Trial", (1962-63) 37 Tulane Law Review 641-684, and see "Superior Orders", at pp. 673-680;
 

__________"Superior Orders and the Reasonable Man", (1970) 8 Canadian Year Book of International Law 61-103; copy at the University of Ottawa, K 3 .A523  Location: FTX Periodicals; with the same title in Essays on the Modern Law of War, Dobbs Ferry, N.Y.: Transnational Publishers, 1985;
 

__________Superior orders in national and international law, Leyden : A. W. Sijthoff, 1976, xix, 374 p., ISBN: 9028604065; copy at the University of Ottawa, FTX General, K 31 .G74 1976; limited preview at http://books.google.com/books?id=QP-LAqs5iKMC&pg=PA181&dq=penal+code+france+%22criminal+law%22&lr=&as_brr=3&ei=K0jLR6rsB6jsiQGis4UM&sig
=0C2IKArSsQgz-mblanIGbU_0O_M and http://books.google.com/books?id=QP-LAqs5iKMC&dq=penal+code+france+%22criminal+law%22&lr=&as_brr=3&source=gbs_summary_s&cad=0 (accessed on 2 March 2008);
 

GREENBERG, M., "Rabbinic reflections on defying illegal orders: Amasa, Abner, and Joab", in Menachem Marc Kellner, 1946-, ed., Contemporary Jewish Ethics, New York: Sanhedrin Press, 1978, x, 452 p., at pp. 211-220, ISBN: 0884829219 and 0884829200 (pbk.); title noted in my research but article not consulted; no copy in the Ottawa area libraries covered by the AMICUS catalogue of Library and Archives Canada (verification of 16 October 2005);
 

GREENSPAN, Morris, The modern law of land warfare, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1959, xxiv, 724 p., and see on see on superior orders and duress, pp. 490-496; copy at the University of Ottawa, FTX General, KZ 6385 .G74 1959;
 

HANCOCK, D.J., "A South African approch to the defense of superior ordersin international criminal law", (1972) 2 Responsa Meridiana 188; title noted in my research but article not consulted; no copy in the Ottawa area libraries covered by the AMICUS catalogue of Library and Archives Canada (verification of 16 October 2005);  copy at Université McGill,  Bibliothèque de droit Nahum Gelber/McGill University, Nahum Gelber Law Library;
 

HARRIS, Lachlan, "The International Criminal Court and the Superior Orders Defence", (2003) 22 University of Tasmania Law Review 200-213; copy at the University of Ottawa, KTA 0 .U547  Location: FTX Periodicals;
 

HEALY, Francis Bernard, Should a Qualified Defence of Obedience to Superior Orders be Allowed to Australian Defence Force Personnel in Respect of Regulatory Offences Arising out of Peacetime Activities?, LL.M.thesis, 1999, University of Melbourne (Australia), 2 volumes; title noted in my research but thesis not consulted; no copy of the thesis in the Canadian universities covered by the AMICUS catalogue of Library and Archives Canada (verification of 16 September 2005);
 

HEARN, M.N., "The order to fire and the defence of superior orders", (1962)  2 Rhodesia and Nyasaland Law Journal 56;  title noted in my research but article not consulted; no copy in the Ottawa area libraries covered by the AMICUS catalogue of Library and Archives Canada  (verification of 16 October 2005);
 

HENDIN, Stuart, "Command Responsibility and Superior Orders in the Twentieth Century - A Century of Evolution", (March 2003) 10(1) Murdoch University Electronic Journal of Law; available at  http://www.murdoch.edu.au/elaw/issues/v10n1/hendin101.txt (accessed on 29 August 2005);
 

HENNAU, Christiane et Jacques Verhaegen, Droit pénal général, 3e éd., avec mise à jour par avec le concours de Dean Spielmann et Annabelle Bruyndonckx, Bruxelles: Bruylant, 2003, 626 p., ISBN:280271709X, copie à la Bibliothèque de la Cour suprême du Canada, KJK3824 H46 2003;
 

HENSON, Christopher M., "Superior Orders and Duress as Defenses in International Law and the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia", Paper based on an Expository Essay prepared for PSCI4820: InternationalLaw, under the direction of James Meernik, Ph.D. and Kimi King, Ph.D., Department of Political Science, University of North Texas, 2004, 30 p.;available at http://www.unt.edu/honors/eaglefeather/2004_Issue/2004_PDFs/HensonC.pdf  (accessed on 10 January 2004);
 

HINEK, Silva, "The Superior Orders Defence: Embraced at Last", (2005) New Zealand Postgraduate Law e-Journal Issue 2 -- Article 2, 50 p.; available at  http://www.nzpostgraduatelawejournal.auckland.ac.nz/Back%20Issues/Issue%202%20(2005)/Article2%20Issue%202.htm (accessed on 4 November 2005);
 

HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH, Genocide, War Crimes and Crimes Against Humanity:  Topical Digests of the Case Law of the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda and  the International Criminal Tribunal for the FormerYugoslavia, available at  http://www.hrw.org/reports/2004/ij/index.htm (accessed on 21 July 2004);
 

INSCO,  James B., Note, " Defense of Superior Orders before Military Commissions", (2003) 13 Duke Journal of Comparative and International Law 389-418; available at  http://www.law.duke.edu/journals/djcil/articles/djcil13p389.htm (accessed on 15 September 2005);
 

INTERNATIONAL SOCIETY OF MILITARY LAW AND THE LAWS OF WAR,  International Congress (5th : 1971 : Dublin, Ireland), L'obéissance militaire au regard des droits pénaux  internes et du droit de la guerre : cinquième Congrès international, Dublin, 25-30 mai 1970/ Société internationale de droit pénal militaireet de droit de la guerre, Strasbourg : La Société, 1971,538 p. (Collection; Recueils de la Société internationalede droit pénal militaire et de droit de la guerre; tome 5, volume1); copie à l'Université de Montréal, 1-2 DKZF/S678c/1970; titre noté dans mes recherches mais livre non consulté; aucune copie dans la région d'Ottawa dans les bibliothèques comprises dans le catalogue AMICUS de Bibliothèque et Archives Canada; la bibliothèque du Juge Avocat Général à Ottawa devrait avoir une copie;

- Cars, T., Report --Sweden, pp. 275-282 (English);
- De Smet, A., Intervention, pp. 453-454;
- Dommer, P.P., Report -- U.S.A., pp. 297-324 (English);
- Erman, S., Rapport général, pp. 327-370;
- Fried, Intervention, pp. 450-452;
- Gilisse, j., Discours d'ouverture, pp. 17-25;
- Grün Moss, G., O. Terra Ururahy, and E. Gueiros Leite, Report-- Brazil, pp. 87-91 (English);
- Hadar, Z., report -- Israel, pp. 197-210 (English);
- Kalshoven, F., Intervention, pp. 437-439;
- Kelly, J.M., "Closing Speech", pp. 459-461;
- Kersten, P., Report -- Netherlands, pp. 251-261 (English);
- Monsen, A., Report -- Norway, pp. 263-273 (English);
- Müller-Rappad, Interventions, pp. 147-153 and 456-458;
- Nyholm, S.B., Report - Danemark, pp. 147-153 (English);
- O'Malley, P., pp. 33-36;
- Papadatos, P., Rapport -- Grèce, pp. 181-195 (français)
- Paucot, R., Intervention, p. 455;
- Paucot, R., Rapport -- France, pp. 155-180 (français)
- Pilloud, D., Intervention, p. 455;
- Questionnaire/Questionary, pp. 39-59;
- Stubbs, W.E., British Report, pp. 283-296 (English);
- Stubbs, W.E., Intervention, pp. 417-421;
- Wampach, C., Rapport luxembourgeois, pp. 229-250 (français);
- Wolfe, J., Canadian Report, pp. 127-146 (English);
(Source of information: taken from the bibliography in (2001) 40(3-4) Revue de Droit Militaire et de Droit de la Guerre / The Military Lawand Law of War Review 89-94);

IRAQ, Penal Code, available at available at http://www.law.case.edu/saddamtrial/documents/Iraqi_Penal_Code_1969.pdf (accessed on 18 July 2006);

The Italian Penal Code Translated by Edward M. Wise in collaboration with Allen Maitlin.  Introduction by Edward M. Wise, Lttleton (Colorado): Fred B. Rothman and London: Sweet & Maxwell, 1978, xli, 249 p., see articles 51 and 55, (series; American series of foreign penal codes; vol. 23), ISBN: 08377700434;

"Article 51.  Exercise of a Right or Performance of a Duty.
    The exercise of a right or performance of a duty imposed by law or by lawful order of the public authorities shall preclude punishability.

    If an act constituting an offense is committed by order of the authorities, the public officer who has issued the order shall be liable for the offense.

    The person who has carried out the order shall also be liable for the offense, except where, owing to error of fact, he believed he was obeying a lawful order.

    One who carries out an unlawful order shall not be punishable when the law does not permit him to question the lawfulnesss of the order.

......

Article 55.  Negligent Excess.
    When, in committing any of the acts designated in Articles 51 [Exercise of a Right or Performance of a Duty], 52 [Lawful Defense], 53 [Lawful Use of Arms] and 54, the limits prescribed by law or by order of the authorities or imposed by necessity are negligently exceeded, the provisions of law relating to crimes of negligence shall apply, if the act is designated by law as a crime or negligence." (pp. 17-18)

------

   L'esercizio di un diritto o l'adempimento di un dovere imposto da una norma giuridica o da un ordine legittimo della pubblica Autorità, esclude 
la punibilità.

   Se un fatto costituente reato è commesso per ordine dell'Autorità, del reato risponde il pubblico ufficiale che ha dato l'ordine. 

   Risponde del reato altresì chi ha eseguito l'ordine, salvo che, per errore di fatto, abbia ritenuto di obbedire a un ordine legittimo.

   Non è punibile chi esegue l'ordine illegittimo, quando la legge non gli consente alcun sindacato sulla legittimità dell'ordine.

......

JESCHECK, Hans-Heinrich, "The General Principles of International Criminal Law Set Out in Nuremberg, as Mirrored in the ICC Statute", (2004)2(1) Journal of International Criminal Justice 38-55, and see "SuperiorOrders", at pp. 45-46;
 

JOLOWICZ, J.A., "Grounds of Justification -- English  Law", in Journées d'études sur le droit de la responsabilité (1984: Gand, Belgique), Limpens, Jean, 1910-1979, Centre interuniversitaire de droit comparé, In  memoriam Jean Limpens : Studiedagen aansprakelijkheidsrecht, Gent, 23-24 maart 1984 = In memoriam Jean Limpens : Journées d'études sur le droit de la responsabilité, Gent, 23-24 mars 1984 = In memoriam Jean Limpens : Symposium on Civil Liability, Gent, 23-24 March 1984, Antwerpen : Kluwer rechtswetenschappen, 1987, xxvii, 311 p., at pp. 223-248, and see "Superior Orders: le commandement de l'autorité légitime", at pp. 234-235 (series; Interuniversitair Centrum voor Rechtsvergelijking; 12), (Collection; Centre interuniversitaire de droit comparé; 12), ISBN: 9063212879; copy at the Library of the Supreme Court of Canada, K923 Z9 I56 1987; civil law but useful for researchers;
 

JOHNSON, D.H.N., "The Defence of Superior Orders", (1985) 9 The Australian Year Book of International Law 291-314; copy at the University of Ottawa, KTA 0 .A975  Location: FTX Periodicals;
 

JONASSEN, Rebecca, "The Defence of Superior Orders in New Zealand Law:  A Soldier's Dilemma?", (2002) 9(3) Auckland University Law Review 643-670;

JurisPedia, "Commandement de l'autorité légitime (fr)", disponible à  http://fr.jurispedia.org/index.php/Commandement_de_l%27autorit%C3%A9_l%C3%A9gitime_%28fr%29  (site visité le 26 juillet 2006);
 

KAZAKHSTAN, The Criminal Code of the Republic of Kazakhstan, available at http://www.legislationline.org/upload/legislations/25/c8/ca1cfb8a67f8a1c2ffe8de6554a3.htm (accessed on 30 June 2006);

"Article 37.  The Execution of an Order or an Instruction

1. The causation of damage to interests protected by the present Code by a person who acted in pursuance of an order or instruction obligatory for him shall not be considered a crime. Criminal liability for the causation of such damage shall be borne by a person who issued an illegal order or instruction.

2. A person having committed a deliberate crime in pursuance of an inherently illegal order or instruction, shall bear criminal liability on general bases. Non-execution of a deliberately illegal order or instruction shall exclude criminal liability."

KEIJZER, Nico, Military Obedience, Alphen aan den Rijn: Sijthoff& Noordhoff, 1978, xix, 312 p., ISBN: 9028605088; copy at the Department of Justice Canada Library, Ottawa, U/22/.K264; considered one of the four major treatise on the subject according to Bassiouni;  limited preview at http://books.google.com/books?id=8byIKmi3GyIC&pg=PA189&dq=%22german
+criminal+law%22&lr=&as_brr=3&e=SCDLR-acMqP2iwHd2O0I&sig=fwxm0VE41D9GIxWJPoMS0Em760E#PPR9,M1 and http://books.google.com/books?id=8byIKmi3GyIC&dq=%22german+criminal+law%22&lr=&as_brr=3&source=gbs_summary_s&cad=0 (accessed on 2 March 2008);
 

___________"A Plea for the Defence of Superior Orders", (1978) 8 Israel Yearbook on Human Rights 78-103; copy at the University of Ottawa,KPD 0 .I852  Location: FTX Periodicals;
 

KEITH, Justice Kenneth, Remarks, “Rights and Responsibilities: Protecting the Victims of Armed Conflict”, (1998-99) 48 Duke Law Journal 1081-1131;
 

KELMAN,  Herbert C., and V.L. Hamilton, Crimes of obedience: toward a social psychology of authority and responsibility, New Haven/London (England): Yale University Press, 1989, xiii, 382 p., ISBN: 0300041845; copy at Ottawa University, MRT General K 5087 .S9 K437 1989;
 

KELSEN, Hans, "Collective and Individual Responsibility in International Law with Particular Regard to the Punishment of War Criminals", (1942-43) 31 California Law Review 530-571, and see 556-558;
 

KHAN, Louis, Étude sur le délit et la peine en droit  canon, Paris et Nancy: Librairie Administrative Berger-Levrault, 1898,xv, 173 p. (Collection; Bibliothèque de la conférence Rogéville - Études spéciales d'histoire du droit); copie à l'Université St-Paul, Ottawa;

"La nécessité n'est pas la seule circonstancequi non-seulement exclue l'intention criminelle, mais justifie l'acte commis. Tels sont encore l'état de légitime défense, l'ordre  d'une personne ayant, en vertu de la loi, droit à l'obéissance. Examinons rapidement ces deux causes de justification (1) :

1^o L'ordre légitime.  Le droit canon professe à l'égard du soldat la doctrine de l'obéissance passive absolue et le déclare toujours irresponsable,au point de vue pénal, des ordres qu'il reçoit et exécute(2).  De même, le bourreau n'est pas punissable pour le meurtre légal qu'il commet (3).  Mais les enfants, les femmes mariées, les esclaves, ne jouissent pas d'une protection aussi large.  La loi qui les soumet à l'autorité du père, du mari, du maître, ne paralyse pas leur liberté au même degré que celle qui lie le soldat aux ordres de son chef, qui oblige le bourreau à  l'exécution des arrêts de la justice.  Le droit canon  leur accorde le droit et leur impose le devoir de désobéir  aux ordres qui blessent la loi divine (4).  Ils ne pourraient réclamer l'impunité en alléguant l'exécution d'ordres de cette  nature. [...]
------
(1) Cpr. Garraud, op. cit., I, p. 391 et suiv.
(2) c. 13, C. XXIII, q. 5.
(3) c. 14, C. XXIII, q. 5; c. 41, ead. causa. -- Cpr. art. 327, C.pén.
(4) c. 92, 93, C. XI, q. 3. -- Cpr., en droit romain, Lasserre: Étude sur les cas de non-culpabilité et d'excuse en matière pénale, p. 73, 104, 1 vol. in-8^o, Toulouse, 1877; Mayer, Geschichte der Strafrechte, p. 219, note 30." (p. 42)

KNOOPS, Geert-Jan G. J., Defenses in contemporary international criminal law, Ardsley, N.Y. : Transnational Pub., c2001, xxxviii, 297  p. (series; International and comparative criminal law series); copy at  the University of Alberta (interlibrary loan, K 5455, K59 2001, January 2002); copy home;

___________" The transposition of superior responsibility onto guerrilla warfare under the laws of the international criminal tribunals",  (April 2007) 7(2) International Criminal Law Review 505-529;
 

KOSKENNIEMI, Martti, "Hersch Lauterpacht and the Development of International Criminal Law", (September 2004) 2(3) Journal of International Criminal Justice 810-825, and see "Superior Orders and Command Responsibility", at pp. 816-818; copy at the Library of the Supreme Court of Canada;
 

LAINGUI, André, La responsabilté pénale dans l'ancien droit: XVIe-XVIIIe siècle, Paris: Librairie générale de droit et de jurisprudence, 1970, xii, 367 p., voir "L'ordre de la loi et le commandement de l'autorité légitime" aux pp. 315-330  (Collection; Bibliothèque d'histoire du droit et droit romain, tome 17);

    "Le fait justificatif tiré de l'ordre de la loi ne présente guère de difficulté en droit criminel.  Lorsque la loi ordonne ou autorise un acte, celui qui l'accomplitne peut évidemment encourir aucun blâme de la société.  Le juge infligeant une condamnation à mort, le bourreau qui l'exécute ne font que suivre les injonctions de la loi; le soldat qui tue les ennemis de son pays n'est pas davantage répréhensible.  Ces situations sont parfaitement claires.  Il n'en est plus de même lorsque l'injonction de la loi n'a pas la clarté des exemples précités et qu'elle est transmise à un exécutant par un supérieur hiérarchique: l'inférieur devra-t-il accomplir mécaniquement l'ordre donné?  devra-t-il au contraire refuser l'exécution ordonnée lorsque l'acte paraît contraire à la loi?  De façon générale, tout subordonné doit-ilobéir passivement aux ordres supérieurs?" (p. 315)

LALLEMAND, R., "À propos de la discipline militaire et de l'obéissance aux ordres illégaux", (1967) Journal des Tribunaux 1-3; journal belge de droit; titre noté dans mes recherchesmais article non consulté; aucune bibliothèque de la région d'Ottawa comprise dans le catalogue AMICUS de Bibliothèque et Archives Canada, ne possède une copie de ce numéro de journal (vérification du 18 octobre 2005);
 

LASSERRE, Emmanuel, Étude sur les cas de non culpabilité et les excuses en matière pénale suivant la science rationnelle, la législation positive et la jurisprudence, Toulouse: Bonnal& Gibrac, 1877, 375 p.; couvre les périodes du droit romain, l'ancienne législation pénale, la législation pénale intermédiaire et la législation pénale actuelle; très  beau livre sur le droit pénal, rare au Canada; copie à la  Bibliothèque du Barreau, Montréal;

"DES CAS DE NON CULPABILITÉ ET DES EXCUSES DANS NOTRE
LÉGISLATION PÉNALE ACTUELLE [...]

CAS DE JUSTIFICATION [...]

    Cas dans lesquels il s'agit de l'obéissance  d'un inférieur vis-àvis un supérieur. Obéissance  hiérarchique .
-- La loi ne peut pas fonctionner par sa seule vertu: elle a besoin  d'aide nombreux, se mouvant chacun dans une sphère d'attributions  déterminées.  Cette masse de fonctionnaires est nécessairement composée de chefs et de subalternes: ceux-ci sont soumis à la direction des premiers et leur doivent obéissance.

    Nous allons d'abord étudier l'obéissance hiérarchique, par rapport aux fonctionnaires de l'ordre civil.

    Lorsqu'un homme investi d'une fonction publique, donne à son subordonné l'ordre d'exécuter un acte, qu'il était dans ses attributions de commander, le subordonné n'en est pas responsable.  Mais il faut remarquer, que l'obéissance n'est due au supérieur que dans la sphère de ses pouvoirs: l'inférieur n'est donc pas dispensé de toute vérification; il a pour droit et pour devoir d'examiner, si l'ordre de son chef se rattache à ses fonctions légales et fait partie de leur exercice.

    Lorsqu'un subalterne obéit à un ordre injuste, que son supérieur n'avait pas le droit de lui donner, y a-t-il cas de justification?

    Nous estimons, qu'il faut résoudre cette question en faisant une distinction: s'il est prouvé que le subordonné a exécuté l'ordre illicite, en connaissant l'injustice, il ne sera pas justifié; si, au contraire, on ne peut prouver, qu'il avait conscience de violer la loi, en accomplissant l'ordre de son supérieur, la présomption est en sa faveur; on ne pourra lui infliger aucune peine.

    Cette présomption, est celle de la bonne foi dans laquelle se trouve le subordonné en exécutant l'ordre de son supérieur.  Elle doit d'autant plus lui être favorable, que le devoir d'obéissance lui est formellement imposé, comme règle générale sous menace de blâme ou de peines disciplinaires.

    Nous allons maintenant nous occuper de l'obéissance hiérarchique, par rapport aux fonctionnaires de l'ordre militaire.

    Les conséquences du refus d'obéir, ne sont pas les mêmes pour les fonctionnaires civils, que pour les militaires.

    Le délit du militaire résistant à son supérieur, peut avoir des conséquences graves et terribles; il est beaucoup plus grave que du celui fonctionnaire civil.  Aussi les codes de l'armée de terre et de l'armée de mer contiennent-ils des dispositions sévères pour le refus d'obéissance (art. 118, C. J. M.; art. 294, C. P.) pour l'armée de mer. Ces dispositions assurent l'accomplissement du devoir d'obéissance. Les exigences de la discipline militaire, veulent une obéissance passive; le militaire n'a pas à apprécier la légitimité et l'opportunité de l'acte qui lui est ordonné.  Il ne doit pas raisoner, il doit accomplir le fait qui lui est commandé par son chef, parce que sa mission est toute d'abnégation et d'obéissance. Aussi certains écrivains partisans de la doctrine de l'obéissance passive, que nous considérons comme trop absolue pour être vraie, déclarent-ils le militaire sous les armes non responsable de ses actions.

    L'obéissance hiérarchique est l'un des principes fondamentaux de l'ordre social; elle suppose la légitimitéde l'ordre et du commandement, et couvre les agents qui l'ont exécuté.  Cependant, il est des cas où, d'après nous, le soldat ne pourra être justifié, s'il accomplit un fait illicite, qui ne se rattache pas au service militaire et dont la criminalité est  tellement évidente, qu'elle ne peut lui échapper.

    On ne peut pas dire, en effet, que le militaire n'est qu'un instrument matériel, qu'il doit abdiquer sa conscience et être considéré comme privé de discernement lorsqu'il  reçoit un ordre lui commandant une entreprise criminelle ou un acte  immoral.  De même qu'il ne doit obéir qu'aux chefs, sous les ordres desquels il est placé et doit obéissance, qu'autant que les ordres de ces chefs sont pris dans les limites de leur autorité, de même il ne doit pas accomplir l'acte qui lui est ordonné, lorsque la criminalité de cet acte est manifeste, et qu'il n'a pu la croire légitime.

    Si, par exmeple, un chef donne à un militairequi l'exécute l'ordre de s'introduire dans une habitation et d'y commettre un rapt, d'incendier une maison, de faire feu sur une personne qui est son ennemie, il ne sera point justifié par l'ordre qu'il a reçu. Dégager dans de pareils cas l'inférieur de la responsabilité, ce serait assurer l'impunité à l'un des coupables et favoriser la perpétration des crimes." (pp.300-303)

LEE, Min-Soo, Military Virtues and Superior Orders, Ph.D.thesis, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, 1992, viii, 216  p., call number: Thesis 92b.L335; title noted in my research but thesis not consulted; no copy in the Ottawa area Canadian Libraries covered by the AMICUS catalogue of Library and Archives Canada (verification of 16 September 2005); copy at Concordia University, Sir George Williams Campus, R. Howard WebsterLibrary;
 

LEIBMAN, Lara, "From Nuremberg to Bosnia, Consistent Application of International Law", (1994) 42 Cleveland State Law Review 705-735, and see "Superior Orders", at pp. 717-722;
 

LEVIE, Howard S., Protection of War Victims: Protocol 1 to the 1949 Geneva Conventions -- Supplement, Dobbs Ferry (New York): Oceana Publications, 1985, [iii], 45 p., ISBN: 0379007991; this supplement is about the the "Negotiating History of the Proposed Article on 'Superior Orders' Included in Draft Additional Protocol 1" (p. iii);

"Holy See

    The delegation of the Holy See voted in favour of Article 77.  It keenly regrets that this article failed to obtain the necessary majority.  By codifying the principle established at Nurnberg, it confirmed a major development in humanitarian law.

   Article 77 in no way encouraged indiscipline in the armed  forces, as has been claimed, but emphasized and encouraged the responsibility of everyone, whatever his rank.  In so doing, it acknowledged the rights and also the obligations of the individual conscience.

   By rejecting Article 77, the Conference has placed future combatants in a dilemma: to obey superior orders involving them in grave breaches of the Conventions and the Protocol, with the risk of being brought before a victor's court, as at Nurnberg; or to follow the dictates of their conscience and refuse to obey such orders, with the risk of finding themselves facing the law of their own country in all its stringency.

    We may be certain that, in most cases, they will prefer to gamble, so to speak, on their country's victory, and carry out the orders they receive, no matter what their nature.

    Thus, in rejecting Article 77, the Conference hasin a sense written off the principles of law established at Nurnberg: inother words, it has taken humanitarian law back a step.

    It has also shown that it regards 'subordinates', whether combatants or civilians, not as human beings with minds of theirown, but as irresponsible creatures." (p. 42)
 
 

___________"Some Comments on Professor D'Amato's 'Paradox' ", (1986) 80 American Journal of International Law 608-611;
 

LEWY, Guenter, "Superior Orders, Nuclear Warfare, and the Dictates of Conscience: The Dilemma of Military Obedience in the Atomic Age", (1961) 55 American Political Science Review 3-23; also with the same titlein Richard A. Wassserstrom, 1936-, ed., War and morality, Belmont (Calif.): Wadsworth [1970], 136 p., at pp. 115-134; copy of the book at Carleton University, U22.W37;
 

LINTON, Suzannah and  Caitlin Reiger, "The Evolving Jurisprudenceand Practice of East Timor's Special Panels for Serious Crimes on Admissions of Guilt, Duress, and Superior Orders", (2001) 4 Yearbook of International Humanitarian Law 1-48; available at  http://www.jsmp.minihub.org/Reports/otherresources/YIHL-4-Linton-1_23903.pdf (accessed on 28 September 2005);
 

LIPPMAN, Matthew R., "Conundrums of Armed Conflict: Criminal Defences to Violation of Human Rights", (1996-97) 15 Dickinson Journal of Internia lLaw 1-111, and see "Superior Orders", at pp. 4-58; important contribution;
 

__________"Humanitarian Law: The Development and Scope of the Superior Orders Defense", (2001-2002) 20 Penn State International Law Review153-251;
 

LIWERANT, O. Sara, "Les exécutants", dans Droit international pénal / Centre de droit international de l'Université deParis X - Nanterre (CEDIN Paris X),  sous la direction de Hervé Ascensio, Emmanuel Decaux et Alain Pellet, Paris : Pedone, 2000, xvi, 1053 p., chapitre 17, aux pp. 211-224, ISBN: 2233003721; copie à la Bibliothèque de l'Université d'Ottawa, FTX General, K5055 .D76 2000; copie à la Bibliothèque de la Cour suprême du Canada, K5000 D76 2000;
 

LOMBAERT, Bruno, "Ordre illégal et obéissance hiérarchique dans le droit disciplinaire de la fonction publique", (28 mars 1998) 117 Journal des Tribunaux 265-272; revue belge;
 

MacKENZIE, Compton, "Refusing to Obey in World War", in Certain Aspects of Moral Courage, Garden City, N.Y : Doubleday, 1962, 255 p., at pp.139-163; title noted in my research but article not consulted; no copy in the Ottawa area libraries covered by the AMICUS catalogue of Library and Archives Canada (verification of 16 October 2005);
 

MALLEA, E., "L'excuse des ordres supérieurs et le droit international humanitaire" in F. (Frits) Kalshoven, Yves Sandoz, Centre for Studies and Research in International Law and International Relations (Hague Academy of International Law), in Implementation of international humanitarian law:research papers by participants in the 1986 session of the Centre for Studies and Research in International Law and International Relations of the Hague Academy of International Law / editors, Frits Kalshoven & Yves Sandoz; co-editors, Huong T. Huynh, Peter Macalister-Smith, Bruno Zimmermann = Mise en õuvre du droit international humanitaire: travaux de recherche des participants à la session de 1986 du Centre d'étude et de recherche de droit international et de relations internationales de l'Académie de droit international de la Haye/ éditeurs, Frits Kalshoven & Yves Sandoz ;  co-éditeurs, Huong T. Huynh, Peter Macalister-Smith, Bruno Zimmermann, Dordrecht; Boston : Nijhoff ; Norwell, MA, U.S.A. : 1989, xiv, 472 p., ISBN: 9024737842; copie à la Bibliothèque de la Cour suprême du Canada, JX 5136 I 56 1989; titre noté dans mes recherches mais article non consulté; livre mal placé sur les tablettes àla Bibliothèque de la Cour suprême du Canada;

MAOGOTO, Jackson Nyamuya, "The Defence of Superior Orders", in Olaoluwa Olusanya, ed., Rethinking international criminal law : the substantive Part, Groningen : Europa Law Pub., 2007,  viii, 213 p., at pp. 91-130 (series;  European and international criminal law series; 2), ISBN: 9789076871752; available in part at  http://books.google.com/books?id=zbZ5C3XSlmEC&pg=PA22&dq=dolus+intention+directus&lr=&as_brr=0&sig=jcJR3ZwkUCLTwVG1T3dwIzqO7iw#PPP10,M1 and http://books.google.com/books?id=zbZ5C3XSlmEC&dq=dolus+intention+directus&lr=&as_brr=0&source=gbs_summary_s&cad=0 (accessed on 23 February 2008); also "The Superior Orders Defence: A Game of Musical Chairs and the Jury is Still Out", available at SSRN: http://ssrn.com/abstract=1079378 (accessed on 3 April 2008);

MARCHAL, A., "Annotations relatives à l'ordre illégal en droit militaire belge", (1965) Revue de Droit Pénal Militaire et du Droit de la Guerre / The Military Law and Law of War Review 275-289;note: titre de périodique prédécesseur à Revue de droit militaire et de droit de la guerre; titre noté dansmes recherches mais article non consulté; aucune bibliothèquede la région d'Ottawa comprise dans le catalogue AMICUS de Bibliothèque et Archives Canada, ne possède une copie de ce numéro de périodique (vérification du 18 octobre 2005); probablement une copie à la Bibliothèque du Juge Avocat Général, à Ottawa;
 

MARCIN, Raymond B., "Individual Conscience Under Military Compulsion", (December 1971) 57 American Bar Association Journal 1222-1224; copy at the University of Ottawa, KF 200 .A425  Location: FTX Periodicals;
 

MARTINES, Francesca, "The defences of reprisals, superior orders and duress in the Priebke case before the Italian Military Tribunal", (1998) 1 Yearbook of international humanitarian law  354-361; title noted in my research but article not consulted; no copy in the Ottawa area libraries covered by the AMICUS catalogue of Library and Archives Canada (verification of 16 October 2005);
 

MATHEW, K.K. (Kuttyil Kurien), 1911-, Three lectures, Lucknow: Eastern Book Co., 1983, 58 p.; the title of the relevant lecture is "Rightto rebellion and obedience to superior orders"; title noted in my research but article not consulted; no copy in the Ottawa area libraries covered by the AMICUS catalogue of Library and Archives Canada (verification of 16 October 2005); copy at University of Toronto, John P. Robarts ResearchLibrary (Humanities and Social Sciences), K/ /M4274T4/1983;
 

MAUGERI, Anna Maria, "La responsabilité des supérieurs hiérarchiques et l'effet d'exonération de l'ordre du supérieur dans le statut de la Cour pénale internationale", dans, sous la direction de Mario Chiavario, La justice pénale internationaleentre passé et avenir, Milano: A. Giuffrè ; [Paris](F) : Dalloz, 2003, 398 p., aux pp. 295-326, ISBN: 8814100535 et 2247054390; copie à l'Université d'Ottawa, FTX General, KZ 6311 .J872003;
 

MAY, Larry, 1952-, Crimes against humanity: a normative account, Cambridge (U.K.)/ New York : Cambridge University Press, 2005, xiii, 310 p., see Chapter 10, "Superior Orders, Duress and Moral Perception", ISBN: 0521840791 and 0521600510 (pbk.); copy at the Library of the Supreme Court of Canada;
 

McCOUBREY, Hilaire, 1953-, "From Nuremberg to Rome: Restoring the Defence of Superior Orders", (2001) 50 International and Comparative Law Quarterly 386-394;
 

___________The obligation to obey in legal theory, Brookfield (Vermont): Dartmouth; Paris: UNESCO Pub. 1995, viii, 228 p., see Chapter 6, "Superior Orders and Obligations", at pp. 161-183, ISBN: 1855218259; copy at the University of Ottawa, FTX General, K 258 .M346 1997; derived from 1990 Ph.D. thesis, University of Nottingham;
 

MERTZ, Paul-Bolko, "A Controversy: Moral and legal Limitations on Military Obedience Versus the Demands of  Combat" (1992) South African Defence Review, issue number 4; available at  http://www.iss.co.za/Pubs/ASR/SADR4/Mertz.html (accessed on 2 September 2006);

MILGRAM, Stanley, Obedience to Authority: An Experimental View, New York: Harper & Row, [1974], xviii, 224 p., ISBN: 0060129387; copy at the University of Ottawa, MRT General, HM 1251 .M54 1974; copy at Carleton University, Floor 4, HM271 .M47;
 

___________"Some Conditions of Obedience and Disobedience to Authority",(1965) 18 Human Relations 57-75; copy at the University of Ottawa, H 1 .H8  Location: MRT Storage; copy at Carleton University, H1.H8 Location: Floor 4 Serial;

"The situation in which one agent commands another to hurt a third turns up time and again as a significant theme in human relations. It is powerfully expressed in the story of Abraham, who is commanded by God to kill his son.  It is no accident that Kierkegaard, seeking to orient his thought to the central themes of human experience, chose Abraham's conflict as the springboard to his philosophy.

    War too moves forward on the triad of an authority which commands a person to destroy the enemy, and perhaps all organized hostility may be viewed as a theme and variation on the three elementsof authority, executant, and victim.²  We describe an expirimental program, recently conducted at Yale University ,in which a particular expression of this conflict is studied by experimental means.

    In its most general form the problem may be defined thus: if X tells Y to hurt A, under what conditions will Y carry out the command of X and under what conditions will he refuse.  In the more limited form possible in laboratory research, the question becomes: if an experimenter tells a subject to hurt another person, under what conditions will the subject go along with this instruction,and under what conditions will he refuse to obey.  The laboratory problem is not so much a dilution of the general statement as one concrete expression of the many particular forms this question may assume.

    One aim of the research was to study behavior in a strong situation of deep consequence for the participants, for the psychological forces operative is powerful and lifelike forms of the conflict may not be brought into play under diluted conditions." (p. 57; one note omitted)

MINOW,  Martha, "Living Up to Rules: Holding Soldiers Responsible for Abusive Conduct and the Dilemma of the Superior Orders Defence" , (2007) 52(1) McGill Law Review 1-54, available at SSRN: http://ssrn.com/abstract=1013632; (accessed on 20 March 2008);

MIOCEVIC, Jeremy, The Defence of Superior Orders. An Analysis Based on Role-Differentiated Moralily, Dissertation, LLB (Hons), University of Auckland, 1999, 38 leaves, Call Number: THESIS LT 99-096; title notedin my research but thesis not consulted; no copy in the Canadian Libraries covered by the AMICUS catalogue of Library and Archives Canada (verification of 28 September 2005);
 

MONGOLIA, Criminal Code, available at http://www.ecoi.net/file_upload/432_tmpphpqd46LN.pdf  (accessed on 27 September 2007); 

MORRIS, Virginia, 1955-, and Michael P. Scharf, 1963-, The International Criminal Tribunal of Rwanda, 2 volumes, Irvington-on-Hudson (N.Y.):Transnational Publishers, c1998, vol. 1, xx, 743 p., and see "SuperiorOrders", at pp. 262-268, ISBN:1571050388; copy at the University of Ottawa,FTX General, KZ 1201 .A12 M67 1998  v.1;
 

MULINEN, Frédéric de, "Intervention.  On So-Called Unlawful Orders", (1986) 25 Revue de droit militaire et de droit de  la guerre /  The Military Law and Law of War Review 501-502;
 

MÜLLER-RAPPARD, Ekkehart, L'ordre supérieur militaire et la responsabilité pénale du subordonné, Paris: A. Pedone, 1965, xii, 284 p., Thèse de doctorat, Universitéde Genève, 1965, Bibliographie: p. [267]-275; références à Hobbes, Grotius etc.; titre noté dans mes recherches mais livre non consulté; aucune bibliothèque de la région d'Ottawa comprise dans le catalogue AMICUS de Bibliothèque et ArchivesCanada n'a ce volume (vérification du 16 octobre 2005); copie à l'Université de Montréal, DKFD/M958o/1965;
 

NEW ZEALAND, The Crimes Act 1961, s. 47; available at http://rangi.knowledge-basket.co.nz/gpacts/ (accessed on 17 October 2005)

"47.  Protection of members of New Zealand forces

  (1)  Every one bound as a member of the New Zealand forces to obey the lawful command of his superior officer is justified in obeying any command given him by any such officer for the suppression of a riot, unless the command is
manifestly unlawful.

  (2)  It is a question of law whether any particular commandis manifestly unlawful or not."
 

NIGER, Constitution du Niger, 1999; disponible à  http://droit.francophonie.org/doc/html/ne/con/fr/1999/1999dfnecofr1.html (visionné le 25 août 2005);

"TITRE II : DES DROITS ET DEVOIRS DE LA PERSONNE HUMAINE[...]

Article 13

Nul n'est tenu d'exécuter un ordre manifestement illégal.

La loi détermine l'ordre manifestement illégal.

Tout individu, tout agent de l'État, qui se rendrait coupable d'acte de tortures, de sévices ou de traitements, inhumains ou dégradants dans l'exercice ou à l'occasion de l'exercice de ses fonctions, soit de sa propre initiative, soit sur instructions, sera puni conformément à la loi."

NORENE, Obedience to Orders as a Defense to a Criminal Act , JAG (Judge Advocate General) School thesis, 1971; available at http://www.loc.gov/rr/frd/Military_Law/pdf/obedience_orders.pdf (accessed on 13 April 2008);
 

O'CONNOR, D. (Desmond) and P.A. (Paul A.) Fairall, Criminal Defences, 3rd ed., Sydney: Butterworths, 1996, xxxii, 328 p., and see Chapter 10,"Superior Orders", at pp. 166-168, ISBN: 0409308463; copy at the Library of the Supreme Court of Canada, KF 9240 026 1996;
 

O'CONNOR, Vivienne and Colette Rausch, eds., with Hans Joerg Albrecht and Goran Klemencic, Model codes for post-conflict criminal justice, Washington, D.C. : United States Institute of Peace Press, 2007-,  and see "Superior Orders" at pp. 80-81, ISBN: 9781601270115 (pbk. : alk. paper); 1601270119 (pbk. : alk. paper); 9781601270122 (hardcover : alk. paper);  1601270127 (hardcover : alk. paper); available at http://books.google.com/books?id=FL3nJkyxDBkC&pg=PR23&dq=%22comparative++criminal+law%22&lr=&as_brr=3&ei=XSDxSPaCIoO6yAT4-aziAw&sig=ACfU3U0jIcI2f4BPr_OTvi5RqgnWG9DcMg#PPA78,M1 (accessed on 11 October 2008);
 
 

O'SHEA, Timothy G., 1922-, The liability of members of the Armed Forces for acts committed voluntarily or in obedience to superior orders,Alexandria, Va. [c1958], xiii, 32 leaves; Library of Congress catalogue; I have not consulted the book, copy of which is not available in the Ottawa area libraries covered by the AMICUS catalogue of Library and Archives Canada (verification of 16 October 2005);
 

OSIEL, Mark J., Obeying orders : atrocity, military discipline & the law of war, New Brunswick, N.J. : Transaction Publishers, c1999, viii, 398 p., 156000407X; copy at Ottawa University, FTX General K4760.S85 084 1999; limited preview available at http://books.google.com/books?id=n7JlYMf-bbwC&pg=PA82&dq=%22rethinking+criminal+law%22&lr
=&as_brr=0&sig=jOvSoP6ShHv8J9urMFIqb-xq71I#PPP1,M1 and http://books.google.com/books?id=n7JlYMf-bbwC&dq=%22rethinking+criminal+law%
22&lr=&as_brr=0&source=gbs_summary_s&cad=0 (accessed on 3 March 2008);

"Contents
Acknowledgments...vii
Introduction...1

Pt. I.  OBEDIENCE TO SUPERIOR ORDERS
1. Virtues and Vices of Military Obedience...13
2. The Law of Military Obedience...41
3. The Uncertain Scope of "Manifest" Illegality...71

      Problems with Prevailing Law
4.  Sparse and Unsettled Rules...91
5.  The Weightlessness of Moral Gravity...113
6.  Irregularity amidst Procedural Formality...121
7.  Atrocities "Vanish" by Verbal Artistry...125
8.  Views of Atrocity in Legal Theory: Positivist, Naturalistand Postmodernist...137
9.  Individual Responsibility for Systemic Horrors?...145

Part. II.  ADVERTING ATROCITY
10.  Legal Norms and Social Practices in Military Life...161
11.  Cold Hearts and the Heat of Battle: Atrocity from Above orfrom Below?...173
12.  Permutations on Perversity: Atrocity by Connivance and Brutalization...187

      Social Bases of Military Obedience
13.  Why Do Men Fight?...201
14.   Morale and Morality: An Uneasy Relationship...223

Part III. FREEDOM AND CONSTRAINTS IN MILITARY LIFE AND LAW
15.  Rules vs. Standards in Military Law...233
16.  Martial Courage as Moral Judgment...247
17.  Promoting Practical Judgment...263
18.  What Soldiers Know...281
19.  Misreading Orders Morally...297
20.  Disobedience as Creative "Compliance"...315
21.  Living with Lawyers...341
22.  Applying Applied Ethics, or Where the Rubber Hits the Road...351

Conclusion...357
Bibliography...367
Index...391" (pp. v-vi)
 

PANDE, B.B., "Justifiable Executive Homicide in Obedience to SuperiorOrders: Extent of Criminal Liability Exemption through 'Superior Order' Plea", (1982) 2 Supreme Court Cases (Journals) 34 to approx. 43; title noted in my reserarch but article not consulted; published by theEastern Book Company (India);
 

PAPADATOS, Pierre A.(Pierre Achille/Petros Achillieos), 1924-, Leproblème de l'ordre reçu en droit pénal, Genève: Librairie Droz, 1964, 175 p. (Collection; Travaux de droit, d'économie,de sociologie et de sciences politiques; numéro 27); copie àl'Université Ottawa, FTX General,  K 31 .P3 1964;
 

PAQUIER, André, De la responsabilité pénale de l'agent au cas d'infraction commise sur l'ordre d'autrui, Nancy:Imprimerie nancéienne, 160 p.; thèse Nancy, 1923; titre noté dans mes recherches mais thèse non consultée; aucune copie dans les bibliothèques canadiennes comprises dans le catalogue AMICUS  de Bibliothèque et Archives Canada (vérification du 10 octobre2005);
 

PARKS, William H., "A Few Tools in the Prosecution of War Crimes", (1995) 149 Military Law Review 73-85, and see "Superior Orders", at pp.77-82; available at http://www.loc.gov/rr/frd/Military_Law/Military-Law-Review-home.html (accessed on 6 November 2005);
 

PASTON, David George, Superior orders, as affecting responsibility  for war crimes, by David George Paston. With Addenda in response to Senator  Taft's criticism of the Nuremberg trial, New York, H.G. Publishing Co., 1946, 31, [1] p.; title noted in my research but book not consulted;  no copy of this document in the Canadian universities and libraries covered  by the AMICUS catalogue of Library and Archives Canada (verification of 27 September 2005);
 

PAUST, Jordan J., "My Lai and Vietnam: Myths and Leader Responsibility",(1972) 57 Military Law Review 99-187, and see "Defence of Superior Orders", at pp. 170-175; available at  http://www.loc.gov/rr/frd/Military_Law/Military-Law-Review-home.html (accessed on 30 October 2005);
 

___________"Superior Orders and Command Responsibility" in M. Cherif Bassiouni, International Criminal Law, 2nd ed., Vol. I, Crimes, Ardsley (N.Y.): Transnational Publishers, 1999, ci, 1004 p., at pp. 223-237,  ISBN: 1571050175;

.
PETROV, Martin, "Coupable d'avoir obéi aux ordres?",  in Les Journées Maximilien-Caron (13th: 2003: Montréal, Québec), Hélène Dumont, Anne-Marie Boisvert, La voie vers la Courpénale internationale : tous les chemins mènent à Rome = The highway to the International Criminal Court : all roads lead  to Rome / Hélène Dumont, Anne-Marie Boisvert, directrices, Montréal : ÉditionsThémis, 2004, xxviii, 616 p., aux pp. 385-406, ISBN: 2894001878; notes: papers presented at the 13th conference Journées Maximilien-Caron held in Montréal, May 1st and 2nd, 2003; text in French and English; copy at the Library of the Supreme Court of Canada, K5301 A6 J68 2003;
 

PFEIFFER, Richard, " Proposed Affirmative Defenses of Forced Perpretration, Entrapment, Intoxication and Insanity ", (1972) 33 Ohio State Journal 397-421, see "Obedience to Military Order", at pp. 402-403; note: Student Symposium:The Proposed Ohio Criminal Code--Reform and Regression;
 

POLLOCK, Frederick, "The Work of the League of Nations", (1919) 35 The Law Quarterly Review 193-198, and see "CRIMINAL RESPONSIBILITY: THE DEFENCE OF SUPERIOR ORDERS", at pp. 195-198;

"The mediaeval doctors laid it down that commands even of one's lawful prince contrary to the law of nature (identical for this purpose with universally recognized rules of morality) ought not to be obeyed; but they added the caution that there is a strong presumption in favour of the prince's command being justifiable; in other words, the wrongfulness of the command will justify disobedience when, but only when, it is manifest. One can hardly imagine, to take a strong example, that any mediaeval Catholic soldier would have obeyed his sovereign's command to kill a man acknowledged to be the duly elected Pope." (p. 196)

PORTUGAL,  Penal Code -- General Part in English, available at http://www.verbojuridico.net/download/portuguesepenalcode.pdf  (accessed on 30 September 2007); and for the Codigo de Processo Penal, available at  http://web.archive.org/web/20031208174840/http://www.cea.ucp.pt/lei/penal/penalind.htm (accessed on 11 June 2004 and on 19 October 2007 for web archive);

----

2 Nomeadamente, não é ilícito o facto praticado:

a) Em legítima defesa;

b) No exercício de um direito;

c) No cumprimento de um dever imposto por lei ou por ordem legítima da autoridade; ou

d) Com o consentimento do titular do interesse jurídico lesado."

RESTIVO, Natalia, "Defense of Superior Orders in International Criminal Law as Portrayed in Three Trials: Eichmann, Calley and England", September 12, 2006, Cornell Law School LL.M. series, paper 18, available at http://lsr.nellco.org/cornell/lps/papers/18/  (accessed on 22 July 2007);

RICE, Carol M., "The Superior Orders Defense in Legal Ethics: Sending the Wrong Message to Young Lawyers", (1997) 32 Wake Forest Law Review 887-938;

"Outside of the military, the defense is rarely recognized. A common citizen cannot avoid criminal conviction merely by asserting that his boss told him to do the act. ...

The superior orders defense is generally unavailable in professions other than law.  Most codes of professional ethics repeatedly underscore the individual professional's duties to use independent judgment and adhere to ethical standards. Even in medicine, which shares the life-threatening immediacy of the military, encourages subordinate medical staff to question a supervising doctor's orders." (pp. 906 and 908; notes omitted)

RIDEAU, Joël, "L'Ordre illégal en droit positif français", in Jean Paul Gilli, sous la direction de, La continuité des services publics; études publiées sous la direction de Jean-Paul Gilli, Paris: Presses universitaires de France, [1973], 207 p., at pp. 103-129; notes: "En-tête du titre: Centre d'études administrativesde la Faculté de droit et des sciences économiques de l'Université de Nice"; copie à l'Université d'Ottawa, FTX General: JN2737 .G5 1973;
 

ROCCA, James, "Superior Orders as a Qualified Defense in InternationalLaw" in Herbert Miehsler, Alfred Verdross, 1890-, Ius humanitatis :Festschr. zum 90. Geburtstag von Alfred Verdross /hrsg. von Herbert Miehsler... [et al.], Berlin : Duncker und Humblot, 1980, x, 755 p., ISBN: 3428045939 at pp. 607-630; title noted in my research but book not consulted; no copy in the Canadian universities and libraries covered by the AMICUS catalogue of Library and Archives Canada (verification of 27 September 2005);
 

RÖLING, Bert, "Criminal Responsibility for Violations of the Laws of War", (1976) 12 Revue belge de droit international 18-26, and see "The Question of Superior Orders", at pp. 17-20; copy at the University of Ottawa, K 21 .E87  Location: FTX Periodicals;

Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court (in force on1 July 2002), and see article 13, "Superior orders and prescription of law", available at http://www.un.org/law/icc/statute/english/rome_statute(e).pdf (accessed on 7 September 2005); this international convention was implemented in Canada by the Crimes against Humanity and War Crimes Act, Statutesof Canada 2000, chapter 24, available at http://laws.justice.gc.ca/en/C-45.9/41465.html (accessed on 25 August 2005); also published in French/aussi publiéen français: Statut de Rome de la Cour pénale internationale (en vigueur le 1er juillet 2003), et voir l'article 30, "Élément psychologique"; disponible à  http://www.un.org/law/icc/statute/french/rome_statute(f).pdf (visionné le 7 septembre 2005) cette convention internationale a été mise en oeuvre au Canada par Loi sur les crimes contre l'humanitéet les crimes de guerre, Lois du Canada, 2000, chapitre 24, disponibleà http://lois.justice.gc.ca/fr/c-45.9/texte.html (visionné le 25 August 2005);
 

"Article 33
Superior orders and prescription of law

1. The fact that a crime within the jurisdiction of the Court has been committed by a person pursuant to an order of a Government or of a superior, whether military or civilian, shall not relieve that person of criminal responsibility unless:

(a) The person was under a legal obligation to obey orders of the Government or the superior in question;

(b) The person did not know that the order was unlawful;

(c) The order was not manifestly unlawful.

2. For the purposes of this article, orders to commit genocide or crimes against humanity are manifestly unlawful."
------
"Article 33
ORDRE HIÉRARCHIQUE ET ORDRE DE LA LOI

1. Le fait qu'un crime relevant de la compétence de la Cour aété commis sur ordre d'un gouvernement ou d'un supérieur, militaire ou civil, n'exonère pas la personne qui l'a commis de sa responsabilité pénale, à moins que :

a) Cette personne n'ait eu l'obligation légale d'obéir aux ordres du gouvernement ou du supérieur en question;

b) Cette personne n'ait pas su que l'ordre était illégal; et

c) L'ordre n'ait pas été manifestement illégal.

2. Aux fins du présent article, l'ordre de commettre un génocide ou un crime contre l'humanité est manifestement illégal."

ROTH-ARRIAZA, Naomi, "Special Problems of a Duty to Prosecute: Derogation, Amnesties, Statutes of Limitation and Superior Orders", in Naomi Roht-Arriaza, ed.,  Impunity and human rights in international law and practice,  New York: Oxford University Press, 1995, 398 p., at  pp. 57-70, and see "Superior Orders", at pp. 65-66, ISBN: 0195081366; copy at the Library of the Supreme Court of Canada, K3240.6 I47 1995;
 

RUSSIAN FEDERATION, Criminal code of the Russian Federation, available at http://www.russian-criminal-code.com/ (accessed on 17 July 2006);

"Article 42. Execution of Order or Instruction

1. Infliction of harm to legally protected interests shall not beto qualified as an act of crime provided it was caused by a person acting in execution of an order or instruction binding on him. Criminal responsibility for infliction of such harm shall be borne by a person who gave illegal order or instruction.

2. Person who committed intentional offence in execution of order or of instruction known to be illegal, shall be liable under usual terms. Failure to execute order or instruction known to be illegal shall preclude criminal liability."

RUSSIAN FEDERATION, Criminal code of the Russian Federation, Transl.by William E. Butler. Introd. by William E. Butler and Maryann E. Gashi-Butler ,3rd ed., London: Simmonds & Hill; The Hague/London/Boston: Kluwer International, 1999, xxvi, 224 p., ISBN: 1898029407 (Simmonds and Hill) and 9041195025(Kluwer Law International);

    "Article 42.  Performance of Order or Instruction

    1.  The causing of harm to interests protected by a criminal law by a person acting in performance of an order or instruction binding on him shall not be a crime.  The person who gave the illegal order or instruction shall bear criminal responsibility for causing such harm.

    2.  The person who has committed an international crime in execution of a knowingly illegal order or instruction shall bear criminal responsibility on the general grounds.  The failure to perform a knowingly illegal order or regulation shall exclude criminal responsibility." (p. 19)

SACERDOTI, Giorgio, "Individual Responsibility and Superior Ordersfor War Crimes: Current Developments", in Alfred E. Kellermann, Kurt Siehr,Talia Einhorn, eds., and T.M.C. Asser Instituut, Israel among the nations: international and comparative law perspectives on Israel's 50th anniversary, The Hague/London: Kluwer Law International, c1998, xvi, 392 p., at pp.343 to approx. 352, ISBN 9041111425; title noted in my research but article not consulted; no copy of this book in the Ottawa area libraries coveredby the AMICUS catalogue of Library and Archives Canada (verification of  26 September 2005);
 

SACK, Alexander N., "Punishment of War Criminals and the Defence of  Superior Orders", (1944) 60 The Law Quarterly Review 63-68;
 

___________"War Criminals and the Defense of Superior Order in International Law", (1945) 5 Lawyers Guild Review 11-17; title noted in my research but article not consulted; no copy of this periodical in the Ottawa area libraries covered by the AMICUS catalogue of Library and Archives Canada  (verification of 11 October 2005);
 

SCALIOTTI, Massimo, 1959-, "Defences before the International Criminal  Court: Substantive grounds for excluding criminal responsibility --Part1", (2001) 1
International Criminal Law Review 111-172, see "Superior Orders"at pp. 126-142; copy at the Library of the Supreme Court of Canada, Ottawa;
 

SCHWARTZ, Louis B., "Reform of the Federal Criminal Laws: Issues, Tactics and Prospects", [1977] Duke Law Journal 171-230, and see "Mistake  of Law; Superior Orders; the 'Ehrlichman Defense'", at pp. 213-217;
 

SHALALA, Samuel R. (Samuel Richard), A Study of various communication settings which produce obedience by subordinates to unlawful superior orders,  Ph.D. Thesis, University of Kansas, Speech and Drama, 1974, viii, 122 leaves, call number: Diss 1974 S525; title noted in my research but thesis not consulted; no copy in the Ottawa area libraries covered by the AMICUS catalogue  of Library and Archives Canada (verification of 26 September 2005);
 

SIMPSON, Gerry J., "Didactic and Dissent Histories in War Crimes Trials", (1996-97) 60 Albany Law Review 801-839, and see "Defenses", at pp.
816-818;

"In the case of superior orders, there is an awkward conflict involving military discipline, criminal deterrence and fairness to the  accused. Military personnel undergo a training regimen that emphasizes,  above all, the need to obey and not to question military orders. Meanwhile,  the laws of war impose an obligation to question those very same orders.  Prosecutors have attempted to escape this dilemma by distinguishing reasonable  orders from clearly aberrant ones, though this itself assumes that some notion of reasonableness or moral choice persists in war-time conditions  even in the face of an often brutal, degrading and dehumanizing process of military indoctrination." (p. 817)

SINGH, Karam, Tara Conklin and Cora True-Frost, "ICTR: Legal conditions of subordination in criminal law. Requirements to be a subordinate to another person as a superior", 30 August 2000, 56 p.; available at  http://www.nesl.edu/center/wcmemos/2000/subordination.pdf (accessed on 12 October 2005);
 

SLIEDREGT, Elies van, The Criminal Responsibility of Individuals for Violations of International Humanitarian Law, The Hague: T.M.C.Asser Press, 2003, xxiv, 437 p., see "Article 33 ICC Statute: Superior  Orders", at pp. 316-341, ISBN: 9067041661; copy at Ottawa University, FTX General, K5064 .S53 2003;
 

___________"Defences in International Criminal Law", 44 p., see "ARTICLE33 OF THE ICC STATUTE: SUPERIOR ORDERS", at pp. 27-32, available at http://www.isrcl.org/Papers/Sliedregt.pdf (accessed on 11 August 2004); important contribution;"Paper to be presented at the conference Convergence of Criminal Justice Systems: Building Bridges Bridging the Gap, The International Society For the Reform of Criminal Law.  17th International Conference, 25 August 2003 -- not for quotation."; available at "This paper is based on the PhD research recently published at T.M.C. Asser Press: E. van Sliedregt, The  Criminal Responsibility of Individuals for Violations of InternationalHumanitarian Law, The Hague, 2003"; research note: this book has been ordered by Ottawa University, Law Faculty, on 20 April 2004 (11 August2004);
 

SOLF, Waldemar A., and Edward R. Cummings, "A Survey of Penal Sanctions under Protocol I to the Geneva Conventions of August 12, 1949", (1977)  9 Case Western Reserve Journal of International Law 205-251, and see on the defence of superior orders proposed by the I.C.R.C., pp. 247-250;  copy at the University of Ottawa, K 3 .A84  Location: FTX Periodicals;
 

SOLIS, Gary D., "Obedience to Orders and the Law of War: Judicial Application in American Forums", (1999-2000) 15 American University of International Law Review 481-526; available at  http://www.wcl.american.edu/journal/ilr/15/solis.pdf (accessed on 23 October 2005);
 

____________"Obedience to Orders: : History and Abuses at Abu Ghraib Prison", (December 2004) 2(4) Journal of International Criminal Justice 988-998;
 

SORNARAJAH, M., "Transnational Crimes: The Third Limb of the Criminal Law", [2004] Singapore Journal of Legal Studies 390-413, and see"Duress, Necessity and Superior Orders", at pp. 411-412;
 

STALLYBRASS, W.T.S., "A comparison of the general principles of criminal law in England with the 'progretto definitivo di un nuovo codice penale' of Alfredo Rocco", (1932) 14 Journal of Comparative Legislation and International Law 45-61 and (1933) 15 Journal of Comparative Legislationand International Law 232-241; also with the same title in L. Radzinowiczand J.W.C. Turner, eds.,The Modern Approach to Criminal Law, London:University of Cambridge, 1945, x, 511 at pp. 390-466, and see "Obedience to Superior Orders" at pp. 428-430 (series; English Studies in CriminalScience, Department of Criminal Science, Faculty of Law, University ofCambridge; volume iv);
 

STATUTE OF THE INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL TRIBUNAL FOR THE FORMER YUGOSLAVIA, 25 May 1993 / STATUT
DU TRIBUNAL PÉNAL INTERNATIONAL POUR L'EX-YOUGOSLAVIE, 25 Mai 2003

"Article 7
Individual criminal responsibility ...

4. The fact that an accused person acted pursuant to an order of a Government or of a superior shall not relieve him of criminal responsibility, but may be considered in mitigation of punishment if the International Tribunal determines that justice so requires." (available at  http://www.un.org/icty/legaldoc-e/index.htm , accessed on 26 September 2005)

--------

"Article 7
Responsabilité pénale individuelle [...]

4. Le fait qu';un accusé a agi en exécution d'un ordre d'un gouvernement ou d'un supérieur ne l'exonère pas de sa responsabilité pénale mais peut être considéré comme un motif de diminution de la peine si le Tribunal international l'estime conforme à la justice." (disponible à  http://www.un.org/icty/legaldoc-f/index-f.htm, visionné le 26 septembre 2005)

STEPHEN, James Fitzjames, A Digest of the Criminal Law (Crimesand Punishments), London: MacMillan, 1887, xl, 441 p.;

"[p. 146]

ARTICLE 202.

SUPERIOR ORDERS TO EMPLOY FORCE.

   In all cases in which force is used against the person of another, both the person who orders such force to be used and the person using that force is responsible for its use, and neither of them is justified by the circumstance that he acts in obedience to orders given him by a civil or military superior, but the fact that he did so act, and the fact that the order was apparently lawful, are in all cases relevant to the  question whether he believed, in good faith and on reasonable grounds,  in the existence of a state of facts which would have justified what he did apart from such orders,³ or which might justify his superior officer in giving such orders.

   Illustrations

    (1.) ⁴A, a marine, is ordered by his superior officer on board a man-of-war to prevent boats from approaching the ship, and has ammunition given him for that purpose.  Boats persisting after repeated warnings in approaching the ship A fires at one and kills B.  This is murder in A, although he fired under the impression that it was his duty to do so, as the act was not necessary for the preservation of the ship [though desirable for the maintenance  of discipline].
------
    ⁴ R. v. Thomas,1 Russ. Cr. 823; 4 M. & S. 441.
 
 

[p. 147]
    (2.) ¹A, the driver  of an engine, orders B, the stoker (whose duty it is to obey his orders), not to stop the engine.  The train runs into another in consequence, and C is killed.  B is justified by A's order.

    (3.) ²(SUBMITTED.)  A, a civil magistrate, directs B, a military officer, to order his mento fire into a mob.  B gives the order.  It is obeyed, and C, a common soldier, shoots D dead.  The question whether A, B, and C respectively committed any offence depends on the question whether each  of them respectively had reasonable grounds to believe in good faith either  that what they did was necessary to suppress a dangerous riot, or in the case of B, that A, or in the case of D, that B, had reasonable grounds to believe and did believe that the order given was necessary to suppress a dangerous riot.  A's direction to B, and B's order to C, would not necessarily justify B or C in what they did, but would be facts relevant to the question whether they believed upon reasonable grounds as aforesaid....
-----
    ¹R. v. Trainer, 4 F. & F. 105; 1 Russ. Cr. (5th ed.) 837, 838.  The language of Willes, J., in this case seems to be a little too wide, unless it is taken  in connection with the particular facts.

    ² Whether C wouldcommit a military offence if he refused to obey B's order because he rightly thought it unreasonable, is a question which would have to be decided by a court martial.  I should suppose that cases might be imagined in which even a court martial would hold that a military inferior might and  ought to disobey orders on the ground of their illegality.  An officer, e.g., who commanded his men to fire a volley down Fleet Street when there was no appearance of a distrurbance, or to shoot a child of four years  old running away during a riot, or to desert to the enemy, or to shoot  a superior officer, ought to be disobeyed, and I suppose that a soldier  who obeyed such an order might be punished by a court martial.  Tha tsuch acts as shooting peaceable people wantonly, or a child of four yearsold intentionally, even in a riot, would be murder as well in the soldier as in the officer cannot be doubted.  If so, it seems imposssible to suggest any other  principle as to the effect of superior orders than the one mentioned in the text.  It is indeed essential to the maintenance of the supremacy of the common law over military force." (pp. 146-147)

____________A History of the Criminal Law of England, London:MacMillan, 1883, vol. 1, xvii, 576 p.;

"By the ordinary principles of the common law they [the soldiers]are, speaking generally, justified only in using such force as is reasonably necessary for the supression of a riot.  By the Mutiny Act and the Articles of War they are bound to execute any lawful order which they may receive from their military superior, and an order to fire upon a mob is lawful if such an act is reasonably necessary.  An order to do more than might be reasonably necessary for the dispersion of rioters would not be a lawful order.  The hardship upon soldiers is, that if a soldier kills a man in obedience to his officer's orders, the question whether what was done was more than was reasonably necessary has to be decided by a jury, propably upon a trial for murder; whereas, if he disobeys his officer's orders to fire because he regards them as unlawful, the question  whether they were unlawful as having commanded something not reasonably necessary would have to be decided by a court-martial upon the trial of the soldierfor disobeying orders, and for obvious reasons the jury and the court-martial are likely to take different views as to the reasonable necessity and therefore as to the lawfulness of such an order.

    I do not think, however, that the question how far superior orders would justify soldiers or sailors in making an attack upon civilians has ever been brought before the courts of law in such a manner as to be fully considered and determined.  Probably upon such an argumentit would be found that the order of a military superior would justify his inferiors in executing any orders for giving which they might fairly suppose their superior officer to have good reasons.  Soldiers might reasonably think that their officer had good grounds for ordering them to fire into a disorderly crowd which to them might not appear to be at that moment engaged in acts of dangerous violence, but soldiers could hardly suppose that their officer could have any good grounds for ordering them to firea volley down a crowded street when no distrurbance of any kind was either in progress or apprehended.  The doctrine that a soldier is boundunder all circumstances whatever to obey his superior would be fatal to military discipline itself, for it would justify the private in shooting the colonel by the orders of the captain, or in deserting to the ennemy on the field battle on the order of his immediate superior.  I think it is not less monstrous to suppose that superior orders would justify a soldier in the massacre of  unoffending civilians in time of peace, or in the exercise of unhuman cruelties, such as the slaughter of women and children, during a rebellion.  The only line that presents itself to my mind is that a soldier should be protected by orders for which he might reasonably believe his officer to have good grounds.  The inconvenience of being subject to two jurisdictions, the sympathies of which are not unlikely to be opposed to each other, is an inevitable consequence of the double necessity of preserving on the one hand the supremacy of the law and on the other the discipline of the army." (vol. 1, pp. 204-206)
 

SUISSE, Code pénal militaire, article 18; et Loi fédérale sur l'armée et l'administration militaire (LAAM) du 3 février1995 (État le 12 juillet 2005), art. 32;

"Art. 18¹
Ordre d'un supérieur

1 Si l'exécution d'un ordre constitue un acte punissable, le chef ou le supérieur qui a donné l'ordre est punissable comme auteur de l'infraction.

2 Le subordonné est aussi punissable s'il s'est rendu compte qu'en donnant suite à l'ordre reçu il participait à la commission d'un acte punissable; le juge pourra atténuer librement la peine (art. 47) ou exempter le prévenu de toute peine.
-------

¹ Nouvelle teneur selon le ch. 5 de l'annexe à la LF du 3 fév. 1995 sur l'armée et l'administration militaire, en vigueur depuis le 1er janv. 1996 (RS 510.10)." (disponible à http://www.admin.ch/ch/f/rs/321_0/;visionné le 8 octobre 2005)

------

[Loi fédérale sur l'armée et l'administration militaire (LAAM)]

"Art. 32 Ordres et obéissance

1 Les supérieurs et les aides de commandement qu'ils ont habilités ont le droit de donner des ordres à leurs subordonnés dans les affaires relevant du service.

2 Les militaires doivent obéissance à leurs supérieurs dans les affaires relevant du service.

3 Les militaires n'ont pas à exécuter un ordre lorsque celui-ci leur impose un comportement punissable au sens de la loi ou du droit des gens." (disponible à  http://www.admin.ch/ch/f/rs/510_10/index.html, visionné le 8 octobre 2005)

TAYLOR, Telford, Nuremburg and Vietnam: An American Tragedy, Chicago: Quadrangle Books; distributed by Random House, [1970], 224 p.; copy at Carleton University, Ottawa, 341.41/T246;
 

TIME, Victoria, "Superior Orders as a Defense to Criminal Liability",  in Richard A. Wright and J. Mitchell Miller, eds., Encyclopedia of Criminology, Scarborough: Routledge/Taylor & Francis, 2004, vol. 3, at p. 1619-1621, ISBN:1579584675 for vol. 3 and 1579583873 (for the set of 3 volumes); copy at the Library of the Supreme Court of Canada, HV 61017 E53 2005 REF;
 

TIRAQUEAU, André, 1488-1558, Le «De Poenis Temperandis» de Tiraqueau (1559).  Introduction, traduction et notes par André Laingui et préface de Jean Imbert, Paris : Economica, 1986,vii, 342 p. (Collection Histoire), notes: Société d'histoire  du droit et publié avec le concours du CRNS, ISBN:  2717810447;copie à l'Université Carleton, Ottawa;

"[p. 193]
CAUSE 34

1.- En trente-quatrième lieu, il est vrai qu'en matière d'infractions graves(1), on ne doit pas obéir contre le droit à l'ordre du Prince, du maître, du père, du magistrat ou de quelque autre supérieur, dignes d'inspirer logiquement de la crainte: D. 47, 10, 17, 7; D. 48, 20, 7, 4 et la glose [jussu]; D. 3, 2,11, 4; D. 9, 2, 21, 1 et la glose [non faciat]; novelle 134, ch.9; C.J. 9, 19, 2 et Johannes Faber sur ce texte; C.J. 12, 43, 1 (...);X, 5, 39, 24 et Felinus sur ce texte; VI^o5, 11, 11 et la note sur le mot uti; X. 5, 39, 6 et la glose notable[auctoritate vel mandato ]; la glose [reddituri sunt] surC. 29, qu. 2, c. 1; Bartole sur D. 47, 10, 11, 3 et C.J. 3, 41, 4; Guy Pape, dans ses Décisions dauphinoises , qu. 340 (2).  [...]
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(1) Nous traduisons gravioribus par 'graves'.  On connaît la hiérarchie entre crimina leviora, graviora, gravissa (cf. infra, cause 37, n^o 1, note 1)

(2) - Gl. jussu sur D. 48, 20, 7, 4: patris jussu non excusat
- D. 44, 7, 20 : servus non in omnibus rebus sine poena domini dictoaudiens esse solet : sicuti di dominus hominem occidere, aut furtum alicuifacere servum jussisset (...).  La glose judicium dare résume ainsi la doctrine sur la contrainte: ... si autem jussudomini et in atrocioribus et in atrocioribus, non excusatur: sed minuspunitur (...) In non atrocioribus in totum excusatur per l. istam (...).
- D. 50, 17, 157 (199): ad ea quae non habent atrocitatem facinoris vel sceleris, ognoscitur servis, si vel dominis, vel his qui vice dominorumsunt (veluti tutoribus et et curatoribus) obtemperaverint.
- Gl. uti sur VI^o 5, 11, 11: Et sic mandans et mandatarius eadem poena puniuntur (...), nec excusat hicjussus majoris (...)  La référence aux Decisionesde Guy Pape est inexacte: il faut lire qu. 340 et non 240.  Le sommaire est le suivant: de jussu judicis.  Voici la solution de l'auteur: Nondebet quis obedire judici in his quae a jure fieri prohibentur, alias punitur.
 

[p. 194]
3. Pour résumer ce que nous avons dit, bien qu'en matière d'infractions graves, on ne doive pas obéir à l'ordre d'aucun supérieur, celui qui a obéi à l'ordre doit être moins gravement puni que celui qui a agi volontairement et de son propre chef, selon C.J. 9, 12, 8 et, sur ce texte, Balde et Salycetus; C.J. 9,19, 2 et sur ce texte, la Glose, Johannes Faber et les docteurs (...). C'est aussi l'opinion de la Glose sur D. 50, 17, 157, déjà cité, sur C.J. 9, 19, 2 également cité et D. 9, 4,2, 1, au mot obtemperare (2) (...).  [...]
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[...]
(2) - Gl. ad ea sur D. 50, 17, 157 (199): cf. § 1. Le texte est à peu près celui de la glose judicium daresur D. 44, 7, 20 et que nous avons rapporté supra § 1, note2."

TRIFFTERER, Otto, "Article 33: Superior orders and prescription of law" in Otto Triffterer, ed., Commentary on the Rome Statute of theInternational Criminal Court: Observers' Notes, Article by Article, Baden Baden: Nomos Verlagsgesellschaft, 1999, xxviii, 1295 p. at pp. 573-588,ISBN: 378906173; copy at the Department of External Affairs, Ottawa, callnumber: legal KZ 6310 .C734 1999;
 

U.K., Ministry of Defence, The Manual of the Law of Armed Conflic t/ UK Ministry of Defence, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004, lv,611 p., and see "Superior orders", at pp. 443-444, ISBN: 0199244545; copy at the University of Ottawa, FTX General, FTX, KZ 6385 .M285, reserve;
 

UNITED NATIONS, Basic Principles on the Use of Force and Firearmsby Law Enforcement Officials, UN Document Series Symbol: ST/HR/UN Issuing Body: Secretariat Centre for Human Rights, United Nations, Adopted by theEighth United Nations Congress on the Prevention of Crime and the Treatment of Offenders, Havana, Cuba, 27 August to 7 September 1990; available at http://www.hri.ca/uninfo/treaties/43.shtml (accessed on 1 September 2005); aussi disponible en français, http://www.ohchr.org/french/law/armes.htm (visionné le 9 septembre 2005);

"26. Obedience to superior orders shall be no defence if law enforcement officials knew that an order to use force and firearms resulting in the death or serious injury of a person was manifestly unlawful and had a reasonable opportunity to refuse to follow it. In any case, responsibility also rests on the superiors who gave the unlawful orders."

* In accordance with the commentary to article 1 of the Code  of Conduct for Law Enforcement Officials, the term ''law enforcement officials" includes all officers of the law, whether appointed or elected, who exercise police powers, especially the powers of arrest or detention. In countries where police powers are exercised by military authorities, whether uniformed or not, or by State security forces, the definition of law enforcement officials shall be regarded as including officers of such services."

UNITED NATIONS, Commission of Experts in the former Yugoslavia, FinalReport of the Commission of Experts, Established Pursuant to Security CouncilResolution 780 (1992), UN SCOR, Annex, UN Doc. S/1994/674; availableat http://www.ess.uwe.ac.uk/comexpert/REPORT_TOC.HTM (accessed on 23 October 2005);

"E. Superior orders

In paragraph 54 of its first interim report, the Commission made the following statement:

'54. A subordinate who has carried out an order of a superior or acted  under government instructions and thereby has committed a war crime ora crime against humanity, may raise the so-called defence of superior orders, claiming that he cannot be held criminally liable for an act he was ordered to commit. The Commission notes that the applicable treaties unfortunately are silent on the matter. The Commission's interpretation of the customary international law, particularly as stated in the Nuremberg principles, is that the fact that a person acted pursuant to an order of his Governmentor of a superior does not relieve him from responsibility under internationallaw, provided a moral choice was in fact available to him.'

The Commission notes with satisfaction that article 7, paragraph 4, of the statute of the International Tribunal adopts an essentially similar approach on this subject." ( http://www.ess.uwe.ac.uk/comexpert/I-II.htm#II.E, accessed on 23 October 2005)

UNITED NATIONS, Secretary-General, The charter and judgment ofthe Nürnberg Tribunal : history and analysis / memorandum submittedby the Secretary-General , Lake Success (USA): United Nations, General Assembly, International Law Commission, 1949, iv, 99 p.; notes: United Nations publications. Sales no. 1949. v. 7; on cover: A/CN.4/5. 3 March1949; copy at the University of Ottawa, FTX General, KZ 1176 .U547 1949;

"An individual who violates international law cannot avoid his responsibility therefor on the ground that his act was authorized by the State, or even that it was obligatory under internal law.

    This principle does not, however, seem to exclude every possibility of taking into consideration the fact that a delinquent under international law acted in conformity with the authorization of the  State or, especially, under the pressure of national obligations. Such circumstances do not, it is true, automatically exclude the responsibilityof the perpetrator but it would seem that in the particular case they might be of importance when considering the subjective requisites of the crime,such as the question if the perpetrator acted as a free agent or not. This was the opinion of the Court appears from its interpretation of article 8 of the Charter, which provides: 'The fact that the defendant acted pursuant to order of his Government or of a superior shall not free him from responsibility, but may be considered in mitigation of punishment...'  The true test  when applying this article, the Court declared, 'is not the existence of  the order, but whether moral choice was in fact posssible'.⁵⁴
------
⁵⁴ Judgment, pp. 53-54" (p.42)

UN Blue Book

"2.  FORCE AND FIREARMS...

2.11  Obedience to superior orders shall be no defence if law enforcement officials knew that orders to use force and firearms resulting in death or serious injury of a person were unlawful and had a reasonable opportunity to refuse to follow them. In any case, responsibility also rests on thesuperiors who gave the unlawful orders.⁴⁶
------
46. Principles on Force and Firearms, Principle 26. See also Judgment of the Nuernbern International Military Tribunal, 1946, 41 A.J.I.L. 172(1947)." (available at  http://www.uncjin.org/Documents/BlueBook/BlueBook/english/bbenotes.html#46  ,accessed on 26 September 2005)

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2. LE RECOURS À LA FORCE ET L'UTILISATION DES ARMES À FEU [...]

2.11  L'obéissance aux ordres ne peut être invoquée comme moyen de défense si les responsables de l'application des lois savaient que les ordres de recourir à la force ou aux armes à feu ayant entraîné la mort ou des blessures graves étaient manifestement illicites et s'ils avaient une possibilité raisonnable de refuser de les exécuter. En toute hypothèse, la responsabilité du supérieur qui a donné les ordres illicites est également engagée.⁴⁶
------
46.  Principes relatifs au recours à la force et aux armes à feu, principe 26. Voir aussi le Jugement du Tribunal militaire intemational de Nuremberg, 1946, 41 A.J.I.L.172 (1947)." (disponible à http://www.uncjin.org/Documents/BlueBook/BlueBook/french/bbf2.html (visionné le 26 septembre 2005)

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY, The Law of Land Warfare, Washington(D.C.): The Department, 1956 (series; Department of the Army Field Manual; FM 27-10); available at  http://www.jagcnet.army.mil/JAGCNETInternet/Homepages/AC/TJAGSAWeb.nsf/~8f7edfd448e0ec6c8525694b0064ba51/8daeb722d746afd1852569e10053a0b2/$FILE/FM%2027-10.pdf
 

509. Defense of Superior Orders

a. The fact that the law of war has been violated pursuant to an order of a superior authority, whether military or civil, does not deprive the act in question of its character of a war crime, nor does it constitute a defense in the trial of an accused individual, unless he did not know and could not reasonably have been expected to know that the act ordered was unlawful. In all cases where the order is held not to constitute a  defense to an allegation of war crime, the fact that the individual was acting pursuant to orders may be considered in mitigation of punishment.

b. In considering the question whether a superior order constitutesa valid defense, the court shall take into consideration the fact that obedience to lawful military orders is the duty of every member of the  armed forces; that the latter cannot be expected, in conditions of war discipline, to weigh scrupulously the legal merits of the orders received; that certain rules of
warfare may be controversial; or that an act otherwise amounting toa war crime may be done in obedience to orders conceived as a measure of reprisal. At the same time it must be borne in mind that members of the armed forces are bound to obey only lawful orders (e. g., UCMJ, Art. 92)".(p. Appendix A-120; note: CCMJ=Uniform Code of Military Justice (64 Stat.108; 50 U.S. C. 551-736).
 

VERHAEGEN, Jacques, "La culpabilité des exécutants d'ordres illégaux", (1970) Revue juridique du Congo 231-239;  titre noté dans mes recherches mais article non consulté; aucune bibliothèque canadienne comprise dans le catalogue AMICUS de Bibliothèque et Archives Canada ne possède ce périodique (vérification du 15 octobre 2005);
 

___________"Droit et devoir de refuser obéissance aux ordres illicites en droit romain et en droit contemporain", dans Liber AmicorumLeszek Kubicki Prawo spoleczenstwo jednostka, Varsovie, 2003, aux pp.230-239; aucune bibliothèque canadienne comprise dans le catalogue AMICUS de Bibliothèque et Archives Canada ne possède ce périodique (vérification du 15 octobre 2005);
 

___________"L'illégalité manifeste et l'exception de la  nation en péril", (1973) Journal des Tribunaux 629; titre  noté dans mes recherches mais article non consulté; aucune bibliothèque de la région d'Ottawa comprise dans le catalogueAMICUS de Bibliothèque et Archives Canada, ne possède une copie de ce numéro de journal (vérification du 18 octobre2005);
 

___________"L'ordre illégal et son exécutant devant les  juridictions pénales", (1986) Journal des Tribunaux 449-454;
 

___________La Protection pénale contre les Excès de  Pouvoir et la Résistance légitime à l'Autorité,  Bruxelles: E. Bruylant, 1969, 502 p. (Collection; Bibliothèque dela Faculté de droit de l'Université catholique de Louvain; volume 5); copie à l'Université d'Ottawa, FTX General: JN2735 .V4 1969; couvre l'évolution du droit: Grèce, Rome, l'Ancien régime etc.;
 

___________"Le refus d'obéissance aux ordres manifestement criminels", (March 2002) 84 Revue internationale de la Croix rouge  International Review of the Red Cross -- numéro 845 aux pp. 35-50; disponible à  http://www.icrc.org/Web/Fre/sitefre0.nsf/htmlall/5FZJE9/$File/irrc_845_001_Verhaegen.pdf (accessed on 26 July 2003); short abstract in English at p. 50;
 

VOGLER, Theo, "The Defence of 'Superior Orders' in International Criminal Law", translation by John St. Clair,  in M. Ch. Bassiouni and V.P.Nanda, A Treatise on International Criminal Law, vol. 1, Crimes and Punishment, Springfield (Ill.): Charles C. Thomas, 1973, at p. 619,at pp. 619-635, ISBN: 03980255X and 0398025576 (pbk.); copy at the Universityof Ottawa,  FTX General: K 5015.4 .B37 1973;
 

VAN DEN WYNGAERT, Christine, editor, and Guy Stessens and Liesbeth Janssens, assistant editors, International Criminal Law: A Collection of International and European Instruments, 3rd ed., Leiden/Boston: MartinusNijhoff, 2005, xviii, 1542 p., see the index, at p. 1535, under "Superior  orders"  (mistakenly under "Duress" instead of "Defences") where the authors refer to 14 instruments, ISBN: 900414232 and 9004142940 (pbk.);  copy at the Library of the Supreme Court of Canada, K5301 A35 I58 2005;
 

VAN DER VYVER, Johan D., "The International Criminal Court and the Concept of Mens Rea in International Criminal Law", (2004) 12 University of Miami International and Comparative Law Review 57-149;

WALKER, Nigel, "On Excusing Colonel Priebke: Nigel Walker examiones superior orders and staleness", (16 May 1997) 147 New Law Journal 720 and 733-734; issue number 6792;
 

WERLE, Gerhard, in cooperation with Florian Jessberger, Wulf Burchards, Volker Nerlich and Belinda Cooper, Principles of International Criminal Law, The Hague: TMC Asser Press, c2005, xii, 485 p., and see "Superior Orders",  pp. 152-157, ISBN: 9067041963 and 9067042021 (pbk.); copy at the University of Ottawa, FTX General, K5000 .W47 2005;
 

WHEATE, Rhonda M. and Nial J. Wheate, "Lawful Dissent and the Modern Australian Defence Force", (May/June 2003) number 160 Australian Defence Force Journal 20-30; notes: ISSN 1444-7150; available at  http://www.defence.gov.au/publications/dfj/adfj160.pdf  (accessed on 7 October 2005);

"Members of the Australian Defence Force are subject to a number of national and international laws regulating their conduct,
particularly in times of war. The Defence Force Discipline Act 1982 (Cth)² is the primary national instrument and is accompanied by an explanatory  Manual.³ Together these instruments provide that although only lawful commands need to be obeyed; ⁴  that 'a person given an order requiring the performance of a military duty may infer it to be lawful and disobeys it at [their] peril'; ⁵ and that disobedience of a lawful command is punishable by up to two years'imprisonment.⁶   In addition, the 'defence of superior orders'; ⁷ is available,⁸where:

1. the act or omission was in execution of the law; or

2. was in obedience to:

a. a lawful order; or

b. an unlawful order that the person did not know, and could not reasonably be expected to have known, was unlawful.

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2. Henceforth "DFDA".
3. Australian Defence Force Publication 201 Australian Defence Force Discipline Act 1982 Manual Vols 1-2, Canberra, Australian Defence Force.(Henceforth “DFDA Manual”).
4. DFDA s 27; DFDA Manual 'Commentary on Part III -- Offences' pp. 4-33.
5. DFDA Manual pp. 4-33.
6. DFDA s 27; DFDA Manual pp. 4-32.
7. This defence exculpates subordinates who 'were just following orders'.
8. DFDA s 14." (pp. 20 and 29-30)

WHITE, Patrick, "Defence of obedience to superior orders reconsidered", (2005) 79 The Australian Law Journal 50-62;
 

WILLIAMS, Glanville, The General Part, 2nd ed., London: Stevens,1961, li, 929 p., and see "Superior orders", at pp. 296-301;
 

WILLIAMSON, Jamie Allan,"Some considerations on command responsibility and criminal liability", (June 2008) 90 International Review of the Red Cross 303-317 and see "Manifestly iullegal orders" at pp. 313-317; available at http://www.icrc.org/Web/eng/siteeng0.nsf/html/review-870-p303  (accessed on 15 January 2009);
 

WILNER, Alan M., "Superior Orders as a Defence to Violations of International Criminal Law", (1966) 26 Maryland Law Review 127-142; includes comparative law and history of the dfence;
 

YATES, April, "Imputing the Intent of a Superior to a Subordinate", New England School of Law International War Crimes Project Rwanda Genocide Prosecution, December 2000, i, 33, iii p.; available at  http://www.nesl.edu/center/wcmemos/2000/yates.pdf (accessed on 21 October 2005);
 

YEO, Stanley, "Mistakenly Obeying Unlawful Superior Orders", (1993) 5 Bond Law Review 1-17; copy at the Library of the Supreme Cour tof Canada;
 

ZAHAR, Alexander, "Superior Orders", in Antonio Cassese, ed., The Oxford Companion to International Criminal Justice, pp. 525-527, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009, at pp. 525-527, available at SSRN: http://ssrn.com/abstract=1356492, see http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1356492 (accessed on 20 March 2009);

ZAKR, N., "L'imputabilité des faits et actes criminels des subalternes au supérieur hiérarchique devant le tribunal pénal pour le Rwanda", (2001) 78 Revue de droit international et de droit comparé 51-73, et voir en particulier les pp. 69-72; copie à l'Université d'Ottawa, K 7001 .R48  Location: FTX Periodicals;
 

ZIMMERMANN, Andreas, "Superior Orders", in Antonio Cassese, Paola Gaeta and John R.W.D. Jones, eds., The Rome Statute of the International
Criminal Court: A Commentary, volume I, Oxford/New York: Oxford University Press, 2002, cxl, 1048 p., Chapter 24.2, at pp. 957-974, copy at Ottawa University, FTX General: KZ 6310 .R64 2002 v. 1;
 

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